Geography briefly about the main thing. Geographical information about Russia

The fascinating subject of geography is a scientific field that studies the earth's surface, oceans and seas, the environment and ecosystems, and the interaction between human society and the environment. The word geography literally translated from ancient Greek means “description of the earth.” Below is a general definition of the term geography:

"Geography is a system of scientific knowledge that studies the physical features of the Earth and environment, including the influence of human activities on these factors, and vice versa. The subject also covers patterns of population distribution, land use, availability and production."

Scientists who study geography are known as geographers. These people are engaged in the study of the natural environment of our planet and human society. Although cartographers of the ancient world were known as geographers, today this is a relatively distinct specialization. Geographers tend to focus on two main areas geographical research: physical geography and human geography.

History of the development of geography

The term "geography" was coined by the ancient Greeks, who not only created detailed maps surrounding area, and also explained the differences between people and natural landscapes in different places on Earth. Over time, the rich heritage of geography has taken a fateful journey into the brightest Islamic minds. The Islamic Golden Age witnessed amazing achievements in the field of geographical sciences. Islamic geographers became famous for their innovative discoveries. New lands were explored and the first grid base for the map system was developed. Chinese civilization also contributed instrumentally to the development of early geography. The compass, developed by the Chinese, was used by explorers to explore the unknown.

A new chapter in the history of science begins with the period of great geographical discoveries, a period coinciding with the European Renaissance. A new interest in geography arose in the European world. Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant and traveler, led this new era of exploration. Commercial interests in establishing trade contacts with the rich civilizations of Asia, such as China and India, became the main impetus for travel in those times. Europeans advanced in all directions, discovering new lands, unique cultures and... Geography's enormous potential for shaping the future of human civilization was recognized and, in the 18th century, it was introduced as a core discipline at university level. Based on geographical knowledge, people began to discover new ways and means to overcome the difficulties generated by nature, which led to the flourishing of human civilization in all corners of the world. In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite technology, computerized systems, and complex software radically changed science and made the study of geography more complete and detailed.

Branches of geography

Geography can be considered as an interdisciplinary science. The subject includes a transdisciplinary approach, which allows you to observe and analyze objects in Earth space, as well as develop ways to solve problems based on this analysis. The discipline of geography can be divided into several areas of scientific research. The primary classification of geography divides the approach to the subject into two broad categories: physical geography and socio-economic geography.

Physical geography

Defined as a branch of geography that includes the study of natural objects and phenomena (or processes) on Earth.

Physical geography is further subdivided into the following branches:

• Geomorphology: deals with the study of topographic and bathymetric features of the Earth's surface. Science helps clarify various aspects related to landforms, such as their history and dynamics. Geomorphology also attempts to predict future changes in the physical characteristics of the Earth's appearance.
• Glaciology: a branch of physical geography that studies the relationship between the dynamics of glaciers and their impact on the ecology of the planet. Thus, glaciology involves the study of the cryosphere, including alpine and continental glaciers. Glacial geology, snow hydrology, etc. are some subdisciplines of glaciological studies.
• Oceanography: Since the oceans contain 96.5% of all the water on Earth, the specialized discipline of oceanography is dedicated to their study. The science of oceanography includes geological oceanography (the study of the geological aspects of the ocean floor, seamounts, volcanoes, etc.), biological oceanography (the study of marine flora, fauna and ecosystems of the ocean), chemical oceanography (the study of the chemical composition of sea waters and their effects on marine life forms), physical oceanography (the study of ocean movements such as waves, currents, tides).
• Hydrology: another important branch of physical geography, dealing with the study of the properties and dynamics of the movement of water in relation to land. She explores the planet's rivers, lakes, glaciers and underground aquifers. Hydrology studies the continuous movement of water from one source to another, above and below the Earth's surface, through.
• Soil Science: branch of science that studies different types of soils in their natural environment on the Earth's surface. Helps to collect information and knowledge about the process of formation (soil formation), composition, texture and classification of soils.
• : an indispensable discipline of physical geography that studies the distribution of living organisms in the geographical space of the planet. She also studies the distribution of species over geological time periods. Every geographical region has its own unique ecosystems, and biogeography explores and explains their relationship with physical and geographical features. There are various branches of biogeography: zoogeography (geographical distribution of animals), phytogeography (geographical distribution of plants), island biogeography (study of factors influencing individual ecosystems), etc.
• Paleogeography: branch of physical geography that studies geographical features at different points in time in the geological history of the Earth. Science helps geographers gain information about continental positions and plate tectonics, determined through the study of paleomagnetism and fossil records.
• Climatology: scientific study of climate, as well as the most important branch of geographical research in modern world. Considers all aspects related to micro or local climate, as well as macro or global climate. Climatology also includes the study of the influence of human society on climate, and vice versa.
• Meteorology: studies weather conditions, atmospheric processes and phenomena that influence local and global weather.
• Environmental Geography: explores the interactions between people (individuals or society) and their natural environment from a spatial perspective.
• Coastal geography: a specialized field of physical geography that also includes the study of socio-economic geography. It is devoted to the study of the dynamic interaction between the coastal zone and the sea. Physical processes that form coasts and the influence of the sea on landscape changes. The study also seeks to understand the impacts of coastal communities on coastal topography and ecosystems.
• Quaternary geology: a highly specialized branch of physical geography dealing with the study of the Earth's Quaternary period (the geographic history of the Earth, covering the last 2.6 million years). This allows geographers to learn about environmental changes that occurred in the planet's recent past. Knowledge is used as a tool to predict future changes in the world's environment.
• Geomatics: the technical branch of physical geography that involves the collection, analysis, interpretation and storage of data about the earth's surface.
• Landscape ecology: a science that studies the influence of various landscapes of the Earth on the ecological processes and ecosystems of the planet.

Human Geography

Human geography, or socio-economic geography, is a branch of geography that studies the impact of the environment on human society and the earth's surface, as well as the impact of anthropogenic activities on the planet. Socio-economic geography is focused on the study of the most developed creatures of the world from an evolutionary point of view - people and their environment.

This branch of geography is divided into various disciplines depending on the focus of the research:

• Geography population: studies how nature determines the distribution, growth, composition, lifestyle, and migration of human populations.
• Historical geography: explains the change and development of geographical phenomena over time. Although this section is considered as a branch of human geography, it also focuses on certain aspects of physical geography. Historical geography attempts to understand why, how, and when places and regions of the Earth change and the impact they have on human society.
• Cultural Geography: explores how and why cultural preferences and norms change across spaces and places. Thus, it studies the spatial variations of human cultures, including religion, language, livelihood choices, politics, etc.
• Economical geography: the most important section of socio-economic geography, covering the study of the location, distribution and organization of human economic activity in geographical space.
• Political geography: examines the political boundaries of countries around the world and the divisions between countries. She also studies how spatial structures influence political functions and vice versa. Military geography, electoral geography, geopolitics are some of the subdisciplines of political geography.
• Geography of health: explores the impact of geographic location on people's health and well-being.
• Social geography: studies the quality and standard of living of the world's human population and attempts to understand how and why such standards vary across places and spaces.
• Geography settlements: deals with the study of urban and rural settlements, economic structure, infrastructure, etc., as well as the dynamics of human settlement in relation to space and time.
• Geography of animals: studies the animal world of the Earth and the interdependence between people and animals.

Geographical terms and concepts. Geographical definitions. Absolute altitude– vertical distance from sea level to a given point.a.v. points located above sea level are considered positive, below - negative.
Azimuth– the angle between the direction to the north and the direction to any object on the ground; calculated in degrees from 0 to 360° in a clockwise direction.

Iceberg- a large block of ice floating in the sea, lake or stranded.
Antarctic belt– descends from the South Pole to 70° S.
Anticyclone– an area of ​​high air pressure in the atmosphere.

Area– the area of ​​distribution of any phenomenon or group of living organisms.
Arctic belt– descends from the North Pole to 70° N latitude.
Archipelago- a group of islands.
Atmosphere– the air shell of the Earth.
Atoll– a coral island in the shape of a ring.
Beam- a dry valley in steppe and forest-steppe regions in the Russian Plain.
Barkhan- an accumulation of loose sand blown by the wind and not secured by vegetation.
Pool– an area of ​​depression that has no drainage on the surface.
Shore– a strip of land adjacent to a river, lake, sea; slope descending towards a water basin.
Biosphere- one of the shells of the Earth, includes all living organisms.
Breeze– local wind on the shores of seas, lakes and large rivers. Day breeze. (or sea) blows from the sea (lake) to land. Night breeze (or coastal) - from land to sea.
"Brocken Ghost"(along Mount Brocken in the Harz massif, Germany) is a special type of mirage observed on clouds or fog at sunrise or sunset.
Wind– the movement of air relative to the ground, usually horizontal, is directed from high pressure to low. The direction of the wind is determined by the side of the horizon from which it blows. Wind speed is determined in m/s, km/h, knots or approximately on the Beaufort scale.
Air humidity– content of water vapor.
Watershed– the boundary between drainage basins.
Elevation- an area elevated above the surrounding area.
Waves– oscillatory movements of the aquatic environment of the seas and oceans caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun (tidal waves), wind (wind waves), fluctuations in atmospheric pressure (anemobaric waves), underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (tsunamis).
Highlands– a set of mountain structures with steep slopes, pointed peaks and deep valleys; absolute heights are more than 3000 m. The highest mountain systems on the planet: the Himalayas, Mount Everest (8848 m) is located in Asia; in Central Asia, India and China - Karakorum, peak Chogori (8611 m).
Altitudinal zone– shift natural areas in the mountains from the base to the top, associated with climate and soil changes depending on the height above sea level.
Geographical coordinates– angular values ​​that determine the position of any point on globe relative to the equator and prime meridian.
Geospheres– shells of the Earth, differing in density and composition.
Hydrosphere- the water shell of the Earth.
Mountain- 1) an isolated sharp elevation among relatively flat terrain; 2) a peak in a mountainous country.
Mountains– vast territories with absolute altitudes up to several thousand meters and sharp fluctuations in altitude within its limits.
Mountain system- a collection of mountain ranges and mountain ranges that extend in one direction and have a common appearance.
Ridge– elongated, relatively low relief shape; formed by hills lined up in a row and merging at their bases.
Delta- an area where river sediment is deposited at the mouth of a river as it flows into the sea or lake.
Longitude geographical– the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through a given point and the plane of the prime meridian; measured in degrees and counted from the prime meridian to the east and west.
Valley– negative linearly elongated relief shape.
Dunes- accumulation of sand on the shores of seas, lakes and rivers, formed by the wind.
Bay- a part of the ocean (sea or lake) that extends quite deeply into the land, but has free water exchange with the main part of the reservoir.
The Earth's crust is the upper shell of the Earth.
Swell– a small, calm, uniform wave, disturbance of the sea, river or lake.
Ionosphere– high layers of the atmosphere, starting at an altitude of 50-60 km.
Source– the place where the river begins.
Canyon– a deep river valley with steep slopes and a narrow bottom. K. underwater - a deep valley within the underwater edge of the continent.
Karst– dissolution of rocks by natural waters and the phenomena associated with it. Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a particular area. Local K., distributed over a relatively small area.
Climatic zone (or belt)- a vast region distinguished by climatic indicators.
Scythe- a sandy or pebble ridge stretching along the coast or protruding in the form of a cape far into the sea.
Crater- a depression created after a volcano explosion.
Ridge- a sharply rising large rise, one of the types of hills.
Avalanche- a mass of snow or ice falling down a steep slope.
Lagoon- a shallow bay or bay separated from the sea by a spit or coral reef.
Geographical landscape– type of terrain, a relatively homogeneous area of ​​the geographical envelope.
Glacier- a mass of ice moving slowly under the influence of gravity along a mountainside or valley. The Antarctic glacier is the largest on the planet, its area is 13 million 650 thousand km2, its maximum thickness exceeds 4.7 km, and the total volume of ice is about 25-27 million km3 - almost 90% of the volume of all ice on the planet.
glacial period- a period of time in the geological history of the Earth, characterized by a strong cooling of the climate.
Forest-steppe- a landscape in which forests and steppes alternate.
Forest-tundra- a landscape in which forests and tundra alternate.
Liman– shallow bay at the mouth of the river; usually separated from the sea by a spit or bar.
Lithosphere- one of the shells of the Earth.
Mantle- the shell of the Earth between the earth's crust and core.
Mainland- a large part of land surrounded on all sides by oceans and seas.
Australia– in the Southern Hemisphere, between the Indian and Pacific oceans (the smallest of the continents);
America North and South– in the Western Hemisphere, between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans;
Antarctica– in the central part of the South Polar Region (the southernmost and highest continent on the planet);
Africa– in the Southern Hemisphere (the second largest continent);
Eurasia– in the Northern Hemisphere (the largest continent on Earth).
Meridians geographically e – imaginary circles passing through the poles and crossing the equator at right angles; all their points lie at the same geographical longitude.
World Ocean- the entire body of water on Earth.
Monsoons are winds that periodically change their direction depending on the time of year: in winter they blow from land to sea, and in summer from sea to land.
Highlands– a mountainous country, characterized by a combination of mountain ranges and massifs and located high above sea level. Tibet- in Central Asia, the highest and greatest highland on Earth. Its base rests at absolute altitudes of 3500-5000 m or more. Some peaks rise up to 7000 m.
Lowlands– the lower tier of mountainous countries or independent mountain structures with absolute heights from 500 m to 1500 m. The most famous of them Ural Mountains, which stretch for 2000 km from north to south - from the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan. The vast majority of the peaks of the Urals are below 1500 m.
Lowland– a plain that does not rise above 200 m above sea level. The most famous and significant among them is the Amazon Lowland with an area of ​​more than 5 million km2 in South America.
Lake- a natural body of water on the surface of the land. The largest lake in the world is the Caspian Sea-lake and the deepest is Lake Baikal.
Oceans- parts of the World Ocean separated from each other by continents and islands. Atlantic; Indian - ocean of heated waters; The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest ocean; Pacific Ocean (Great), the greatest and deepest ocean on the ground.
Landslide– downslope displacement of a mass of loose rock under the influence of gravity.
Island- a piece of land surrounded on all sides by the waters of the ocean, sea, lake or river. The largest island in the world is Greenland with an area of ​​2 million 176 thousand km2. Relative height– the vertical distance between the top of a mountain and its foot.
Geographical parallels– imaginary circles parallel to the equator, all points of which have the same latitude.
Greenhouse effect(atmospheric greenhouse effect) – protective effects of the atmosphere associated with the absorption of reflected long-wave radiation.
Trade winds– constant winds in tropical areas, blowing towards the equator.
Plateau- 1) high plain, limited by steep ledges; 2) a vast flat area on a mountain top.
Plateau underwater– an elevation of the seabed with a flat top and steep slopes.
Plyos– a deep (wide) section of the river bed between the rifts.
Plateau- a vast area of ​​land with an altitude from 300-500 m to 1000-2000 m or more above sea level with flat peaks and deeply incised valleys. For example: East African, Central Siberian, Vitim plateau.
Floodplain- part of a river valley that is flooded during high water.
Semi-desert- a transitional landscape that combines the features of a steppe or desert.
Earth's hemisphere- half of the earth’s sphere, allocated either along the equator or along the meridians of 160° east. and 20°W (Eastern and Western hemispheres), or according to other characteristics.
Geographic poles– points of intersection of the Earth’s rotation axis with the earth’s surface. Magnetic points of the Earth are points on the earth’s surface where the magnetic needle is located vertically, i.e. Where magnetic compass not applicable for orientation by cardinal directions.
Arctic Circles(North and South) - parallels located 66° 33′ north and south of the equator.
Threshold– a shallow area in a river bed with a large slope and fast current.
Foothills– hills and low mountains surrounding the highlands.
Prairies- vast grassy steppes in the North. America.
Ebbs and flows– periodic fluctuations in the water level of seas and oceans, which are caused by the attraction of the Moon and the Sun.
Deserts– vast spaces with almost no vegetation due to the dry and hot climate. The largest desert on the globe is the Sahara in the North. Africa.
Plains– vast flat or slightly hilly expanses of land. The largest on Earth is the Eastern European, or Russian, with an area of ​​more than 6 million km2 and the West Siberian in the north of Eurasia, with an area of ​​about 3 million km2.
River- a constant stream of water flowing in a riverbed. Amazon is a river in the South. America, the largest in the world in length (more than 7,000 km from the source of the Ucayali River), in basin area (7,180 m2) and in water content; Mississippi is the largest river in the North. America, one of the greatest on Earth (length from the source of the Missouri River 6420 km); The Nile is a river in Africa (length 6671 km).
Relief– a set of various irregularities of the earth’s surface of various origins; are formed through a combination of impacts on the earth's surface by endogenous and exogenous processes.
Bed- the deepened part of the valley bottom occupied by a river.
Savannah- a tropical and subtropical landscape in which herbaceous vegetation is combined with individual trees or groups of trees.
North Pole- the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the earth's surface in the North. hemispheres.
Sel- a mud or mud-stone stream that suddenly passes through the valley of a mountain river.
Tornado(American name tornado) – vortex movement of air in the form of a funnel or column.
Srednegorye– mountain structures with absolute heights from 1500 to 3000 m. There are the most mountain structures of medium height on Earth. They are spread over vast areas of the south and northeast of Siberia. They occupy almost the entire Far East, the eastern part of China and the Indochina Peninsula; in northern Africa and the East African Plateau; Carpathians, mountains of the Balkan, Apennine, Iberian and Scandinavian peninsulas in Europe, etc.
Slope- an inclined area on land or seabed. Windward slope - facing the direction from which the prevailing winds blow. Leeward slope – facing the direction opposite to the direction of the prevailing winds.
Steppe– treeless spaces with an arid climate, characterized by herbaceous vegetation. In Eurasia, the steppes stretch in an almost continuous strip from the Black Sea to Northeast China, and in North America they occupy vast expanses of the Great Plains, joining the savannas of the tropical belt in the south.
Stratosphere– layer of the atmosphere.
Subtropical zones(subtropics) - located between tropical and temperate zones.
Subequatorial belts– located between the equatorial belt and tropical zones.
Taiga– zone of temperate coniferous forests. The taiga covers the northern part of Eurasia and North America in an almost continuous belt.
Typhoon- the name of tropical cyclones of storm and hurricane force in Southeast Asia and Far East.
Takyr- a flat depression in the desert, covered with a hardened clay crust.
Tectonic movements– movements of the earth’s crust that change its structure and shape.
Tropics- 1) imaginary parallel circles on the globe, located 23°30° north and south of the equator: the tropics of Capricorn (northern tropic) - the tropics of the northern hemisphere and the tropics of Cancer (southern tropic) - the tropics of the southern hemisphere; 2) natural belts.
Tropical zones– located between subtropical and subequatorial zones.
Troposphere– lower layer of the atmosphere.
Tundra– treeless landscape in the Arctic and Antarctic.
Temperate zones– located in temperate latitudes.
Temperate latitudes– located between 40° and 65° N. and between 42° and 58° S.
Hurricane– a storm with a wind speed of 30-50 m/s.
Estuary– the place where a river flows into a sea, lake or other river.
Atmospheric front- a zone separating warm and cold air masses.
Fiord (fjord)- a narrow, deep sea bay with rocky shores, which is a glacial valley flooded by the sea.
Hill– a small height and gently sloping hill.
Cyclones– area of ​​low atmospheric pressure.
Tsunami is the Japanese name for huge waves resulting from underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Parts of the world– regions of the Earth, including continents (or parts thereof) with nearby islands. Australia, Asia, America, Antarctica, Africa, Europe.
Shelf– continental shelf with prevailing depths of up to 200 m (in some cases more).
Latitude geographical– the angle between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator, measured in degrees and counted from the equator to the north and south.
Squall– a sharp short-term increase in wind before a storm.
Calm- calm, calm.
Storm– very strong wind, accompanied by strong rough seas.
Equator- an imaginary line connecting points on the globe equidistant from the poles.
Exosphere– layer of the atmosphere.
Ecosphere- an area of ​​outer space suitable for the existence of living organisms.
Erosion– destruction of soils and rocks by flowing waters.
South Pole– the point of intersection of the earth’s axis with the earth’s surface in the Southern Hemisphere.
Earth's core– the central part of the planet with a radius of about 3470 km.

Economic and social geography

Enclave- part of the territory of one state, surrounded on all sides by the territory of other states and having no access to the sea.
Urban agglomeration- a group of closely located cities, united by close labor, cultural, social, and infrastructure ties into a complex system.
Trade balance- the difference between goods exported from the country (export of the country) and imported (import).
Population reproduction- a set of processes of fertility, mortality and natural increase that ensure the continuous renewal and change of human generations.
Geographical environment- part of the earth’s nature with which society interacts at a given stage of historical development.
Geopolitics- dependence of the state’s foreign policy on geographic location and other physical and economic geographic factors.
Global Population Issues- a set of socio-demographic problems affecting the interests of all humanity, creating a threat to its present and future; United efforts of all states and peoples are needed to solve them.
Population policy- a system of administrative, economic, propaganda measures with the help of which the state influences natural population growth in the direction it desires.
Demographic revolution- transition from one type of population reproduction to another.
Demography- a spider about population, the patterns of its reproduction.
Natural population growth- the difference between the birth rate and death rate per 1000 inhabitants per year.
Immigration- entry into the country for permanent or temporary (usually long-term) residence of citizens of other countries.
Import- import of goods into the country from other countries.
Industrialization is the creation of large-scale machine production in all sectors of the economy, the transformation of the country from an agricultural to an industrial one.
International economic integration- the process of establishing deep and sustainable economic relations between countries, based on their implementation of coordinated interstate policies.
Intensive development path- increase in production volumes due to additional capital investments in existing production facilities.
Infrastructure- a set of structures, buildings, systems and services necessary for the normal functioning and provision of daily life of the population.
Conversion- transfer of military production to the production of civilian products.
Megalopolis (metropolis)- the largest form of settlement that arose as a result of the fusion of several neighboring urban agglomerations.
Intersectoral complex- a group of industries that produce homogeneous products or have close technological connections.
Population migration- movement of the population across the territory associated with a change of place of residence.
National economy- interaction of people and means of production: means of labor and objects of labor.
Science intensity- the level of costs for research and development in the total costs of production.
Scientific and technological revolution (STR)- a radical qualitative revolution in the productive forces of society, based on the transformation of science into a direct productive force.
Nation- a historical and social community of people formed in a certain territory in the process of development of social market relations of the industrial type and inter-district (international) division of labor.
Industry- a set of enterprises producing homogeneous products or providing homogeneous services.
Socio-economic region- the territory of a country, including several administrative units, differing from others in terms of historical development, geographical location, natural and labor resources, and economic specialization.
Zoning- division of territory into districts according to a number of characteristics.
Regional policy- a set of legislative, administrative, economic and environmental measures that contribute to the rational distribution of production across the territory and equalization of people’s living standards.
Resource availability- the relationship between the amount of natural resources and the extent of their use.
Free economic zone- a territory with a profitable EGP, in which, in order to attract foreign capital, preferential tax and customs regimes and special pricing conditions are established.
Production specialization- production by enterprises of individual parts and assemblies, certain types of products, performance of one or more technological operations.
Territory specialization- concentration in the area of ​​production of certain products or certain services
Structure of the national economy- the relationship between various spheres and industries in terms of product value, number of employees or the value of fixed production assets.
Suburbanization- the process of growth of suburban areas of cities, leading to an outflow of population and places of employment from their central parts.
Territorial division of labor- specialization of individual regions and countries in the production of certain types of products and services and their subsequent exchange.
Labor resources- part of the country's population capable of working and possessing the necessary physical development, mental abilities and knowledge for work.
Urbanization- the process of urban growth and the spread of urban lifestyle to the entire network of populated areas.
Service- work aimed at meeting the needs of the individual consumer.
Economic geographical position(EGP)- the position of an object in relation to others geographical objects which is of economic importance to him.
Economically active population- part of the country's population, a comma in the national economy, and the unemployed, actively looking for work and ready to work.
Export- export of goods to other countries.
Extensive development path- increase in production volumes due to quantitative growth of production units.
Emigration- departure of citizens from their country to another for permanent residence or for a long period.
Power system- a group of power plants connected by power lines and controlled from a single center.
Ethnos- a historically established stable community of people that has a unique internal structure and an original pattern of behavior, determined to a greater extent by the “native” landscape.

Bondarev N. D.

Arkhyz and Bolshaya Laba. -M, 2002.

Preface

General information

Features of travel in spring and summer

Pages of history

B. Laba Valley

M1. Kurdzhinovo - village Phiya.

M2. To the origins of the Great Laba.

MZ. Ashirhumara

M4. To the Labinsky glacier.

Zagedan

M5. To the Zagedan Lakes (20 km, 1.5 days)

Other routes

Phiya

M6. Rechepsta River - lane. Phiya - village Phia (23 km, trail, 1 day)

M7. Phiya village - r. Phiya - lane Urup-Pkhiya - to the source of the river. Atsgara.

Stormy and Azimba

M8. B. Laba River - r. Stormy - lane Vorontsova-Velyaminova - l. Azimba - r. Azimba (25 km, 2 days)

M9. Burnaya River - lane Duritsky - b. Amanauz (17 km, 1 day)

From the upper reaches of B. Laba

M10. B. Laba River - lane Zegerker - trans. 46th Army - lane. Alashtrakhu, trail, 12 km, 1 day.

M11. Labinsky Glacier - lane. Psyrs - Psyrs lakes (1.5 days)

Sanchara

M12. Phiya village - r. Sanchara - lane Sanchara - lane Hell-zapsh, trail, 2 days.

M13. Polyana 7th post - mineral springs Adzapsh - lane. Adzapsh.

M14. Mineral springs Adzapsh - trail along the ridge of the GKH - lane. V. Damkhurts - river valley Damkhurts (trail, 2 days).

M15. B. Laba River - lane Abgytskha - the left source of the river. Abgytskha (20 km, 1.5 days)

Other routes

Macera

M16. Phiya village - r. Makera - lane Macera (trail)

Mamkhurts

M17. Damkhurts village - r. Mamkhurts - "Seven Lakes" (4-5 days)

Other routes

Damkhurts

M18. Damkhurts village - lane. Damkhurts

Other routes

Big Zelenchuk. Arkhyz

On the way to Arkhyz

M19. Zelenchukskaya village - Arkhyz village (highway, 48 km).

M20. Nizhnyaya Ermolovka - Krivaya gully - Shpil settlement - r. Kyafar (trail, 1-2 days).

M21. Monuments of Nizhny Arkhyz (1 day).

M22. To the Savior Not Made by Hands

M23. Nizhny Arkhyz - Jeti-Karasu tract - Large azimuthal telescope.

M24. Climbing Mount Pastukhovaya (2733 m, 4 hours)

Other routes

In the vicinity of the village of Arkhyz

M25. Medieval Alan settlement (4-hour excursion).

M26. Barite beam - ridge. Abishira-Ahuba (8 hours).

M27. Rock Karcha-Tebe - lane. Boryu-aush

M28. Arkhyz outlook (6 hours).

M29. Cossack glade - Morkh-Syrty lakes - lane. Ozerny.

M30. Climbing Mount Krasnaya (trail, half day)

Other routes

Valley of the Arkhyz River

M31. Aul Arkhyz - r. Arkhyz (19 km, road).

M32. Arkhyz River - Gabulu-Chat plateau - Smirnova -r. Psysh (2 days, trail).

M33. Dukka River - lane Ayulu - r. Belaya - r. Psysh (26 km, 2 days).

M34. Dukka Pass - r. Burnaya - r. B. Laba.

M35. Fedoseev Pass (1 A, 2880 m).

M36. Rechepsta River - lane. Atsgara - r. Atsgara (trail, 17 km).

Other routes

Psysh

M37. River valley Psysh - lake Naurskoye (trail, 31 km).

M38. Naur Pass (1 A, 2839 m).

M39. Magana pass - Psyrs lakes - lane. Bearish.

M40. Pshish Pass

M41. Sekirtme River - lane. Chuchkhur - Green Lakes - lane. Hare Ears or per. Kholodovsky - r. Psysh (3 days)

M42. Bush Glacier - lane. Kizgych False - trans. Chuchhurskaya Gap - lane. Chamagwara.

M43. Glacier Psysh - lane. Tokmak and lane Psysh.

Other routes

Belaya and amanauz

M44. Belaya River (Ayulyu) - lane. Dorbun - the source of the river. Stormy

M45. Gorge river Amanauz - per. Tornau and per. Bear-Labinsky glacier.

M46. Amanauz River - lane. Poachers - r. Burnaya (9 km)

M47. Amanauz and Azimba passes

Other routes

Sofia

M48. Aul Arkhyz - r. Sofia - Glacier farm (road, 16 km).

M49. Sofia Falls (half-day excursion) leaves an unforgettable impression.

M50. Pass Sofia Sedlo(2640 m)

M51. Glacier farm - r. Ak-Ayry - per. Bash-Jol -r. Psysh (20 km, 1 day)

M52. Ak-Ayry River - lane. Topal-Aush (Kozhukhova) - Green Lakes (2 days)

M53. Ak-Ayry glacier - lane. Ak-Ayry - r. Kyshlau-su (1 day)

M54. Climbing Mount Nadezhda (1A, 3355 m, 10-12 hours)

M55. Ak-Ayry River - lane. Kel-Aush - Upper Sofia Lakes - Kel-Bashi city - r. Ak-Ayry (2-3 days)

M56. River valley Sofia - Gammesh-Chat lakes (excursion, 15 km)

M57. River Sofia - lane Eaglet - lake Craternoye - lake Comma - lakes Kashkha-Echki-Chat - r. Sofia (16 km, 2 3 days)

Other routes

Kizgich

M58. Aul Arkhyz - r. Kizgych - Kshgych-Bash tract (trail, 3-6 days).

M59. Kizgych-Bash tract - Besh-Chuchkhur waterfall - Green Lakes (one-day excursion).

M60. Kizgych and Satkharo passes

M61. Kizgych-Bash tract - river valley Salynngan - l. Saleungang (one-day excursion)

M62. Lake Mironova (6-8 hour excursion)

M63. Passes Kongur, Salyngan, Chvakhra

M64. Baga-Tala tract - lane. Bugoychat - r. Marukh (14 km)

M65. Pass of the 810th Infantry Regiment (1 B, 3000 m)

M66. Kurella Pass - lane. Chvakhra - trans. Kongur - lane Satharo - trans. Kizgych False

Kyafar-Urup. Abishira-Ahuba

M67. Zelenchukskaya village - Storozhevaya village - village. Leso-Kyafar

M68. Stanitsa Zelenchukskaya - r. B. Zelenchuk - Generovskaya beam - r. Kyafar-Agur - forestry cordon

At the source of the Kyafar-Agur River

M69. Kyzylchuk ridge - Rassypnoy hillock - Agur lakes - lane. Fedoseeva - Arkhyz (trail, 4-6 days).

M70. Agur Lakes - lane. Agur - lane Mylgval - lake. Kyzylchuk (1-1.5 days).

M71. West River Agur - lane Kumbyzh - lake Kyzylchuk - lake Rybnoe (trail, 4-5 hours).

Other routes

Kyzylchuk. Chilik.

M72. Rassypnoy hillock - Kumbyzh tract - r. Kyzylchuk-oz. Rybnoe - lane Rechepsta - r. Arkhyz (3-4 days)

M73. Fish Lake - lane. Kynhara - lake Chilik - lane Chilik - r. Arkhyz (1.5-2 days)

M74. Fish Lake - lane. Kyzylchuk - lake Chilik - lane Psykela - r. Atsgara - Glade of poppies (2-3 days)

M75. Traverse ridge Abishir-Ahuba from the lane. Chilik to lane Rechepsta

M76. Kyafar-Rechepsta pass (1A, 3000 m)

M77. Kyafar-Arkhyz pass (1 A*, 3000 m)

Other routes

Atsgara

M78. Atsgara River - lane. Zagedan - r. Zagedanka - r. B. Laba (1-1.5 days).

M79. Glade of poppies - lane. Kabanly - r. Zagedanka - r. B. Laba

M80. Glade of poppies - lane. Kyrthua - r. Zagedanka - r. B. Laba (1.5 days)

To the sources of the Urup River

M81. The village of Urup - ridge. Akshirsky - upper reaches of the river. Urup -r. Zagedanka (trail, 3-4 days)

M82. Great Urup Canyon

M83. Urup-Atsgara pass (1 A*, 3000 m)

Other routes

Brief toponymic dictionary

PREFACE

Western Caucasus is one of the most popular areas mountain tourism, which in the 90s experienced a decline in attendance, as did the entire Caucasus as a whole. In recent years, tourists and climbers have begun to return here. Convenient access, varied, technically interesting passes and peaks, many high-mountain lakes - all this attracts lovers of mountain travel.

The last book on this region was the guidebook “Mountain Travels in the Western Caucasus” (V.V. Arsenin, N.D. Bondarev, E.D. Sergievsky. M: FiS, 1976). Since then, in the West. The Caucasus has undergone serious changes.

The routes to the southern slopes of the Main Caucasus Range (GKR) were cut off due to the appearance of the state border; new routes were developed on the northern slopes. A need arose for a new guidebook, and it was decided to publish it in two books: “Arkhyz. Big Laba” (N.D. Bondarev) and “From Marukh to Elbrus” (V.V. Arsenin). They continue the series of guidebooks “Elbrus and its spurs” and “South of Baksan” (A. A. Alekseev).

The guidebook for each valley first describes the approach routes, then the pass routes to neighboring gorges. By connecting individual sections, you can create multi-day routes of varying difficulty levels. Descriptions of the passage of passes are mainly tied to July - August. A separate section is devoted to traveling in the off-season (April - May, October - November). Techniques for overcoming mountainous terrain, with rare exceptions, are not given.

Due to rare visits to some valleys, descriptions of individual areas may not correspond to the specific situation, primarily due to the condition of trails, bridges and the location of the pits. In recent years, intensive glacial melting has been observed in the Caucasus, which is why large areas open up even on the slopes of northern exposure in August open ice, the danger of rockfalls increases.

In the descriptions, the indications "left" and "right" are used in an orographic sense, when the observer is looking down the river. Otherwise stated.

Currently, the area has become a border area. To visit it, especially near the border with Abkhazia, permission is required, which can be obtained in advance at the address: 357100, Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Cherkessk, st. Leonova, 2, military unit 2011.

At the end of the book there is a list of literature that allows you to become more familiar with the nature and history of the area.

In the guidebook, the chapter “General Geographical Information” was written jointly with V.V. Arsenin. E. A. Alperten and E. A. Chernopyatov took part in the descriptions of the routes. A. Kovalenko, A. Kozhukhov, N.V. Koloshina, V.P. Kuznetsov, I.T. Kuznetsov, V.A. Lunin, P.F. Chirukhin, V.Ya. Fridlyand provided assistance in preparing the book with their materials. . It should be noted that L.V. Wegener played a special role in the preparation of the guide. He compiled a toponymic dictionary, described several routes and made valuable comments on the text and diagrams.

The guide uses photographs by E. A. Alperten, N. D. Bondarev, V. A. Zheltyakov, N. Yu. Kretov, A. V. Pavelchik and E. A. Chernopyatov. At the final stage of preparing the book, a lot of technical work was done by V. A. Kozhin, V. V. Konyshev, L. V. Turkina, E. A. Chernopyatov.

GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

The Western Caucasus is the region of the Caucasus west of Elbrus with borders along the upper reaches of the Kuban and Nenskra. In a narrower sense, to the West. The Caucasus includes the region that includes a high-mountain, glacier-covered section of the Main Caucasus Range (MCR) about 200 km long. Located to the west, the lower mountains belong to the North-West. Caucasus.

The guide covers part of the West. Caucasus with mountains in the upper reaches of B. Zelenchuk, B. Laba, Kyafar-Agur and Urup. Administratively, this territory belongs to the Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Stavropol and Krasnodar region. The most high peaks districts - Pshish (3790 m) and Sofia (3640 m).

Spurs extend north from the GKH, separated by deep valleys of the tributaries of the B. Zelenchuk and B. Laba. At a distance of about 20 km from the GKH, a ridge is located parallel to it. Abishira-Ahuba, belonging to the system of the Advanced (Side) Ridge. By the way, Elbrus (5642 m) also belongs to it. Even further north, along the Peredovoye, stretches the Rocky Ridge (altitude about 2000 m), which has gentle northern slopes. To the south of the GKH there are the Bzyb and Chkhalta ridges. Their spurs, cut through deep canyons the Amtkel, Jampal, Kelasuri and Gumista rivers gradually disappear towards the Black Sea coast.

The rivers of the northern slope of the GKH cut through the Side Range with tight gorges, and in the upper reaches many valleys have extensive basins. The rivers originate from glaciers and snowfields; maximum water occurs in the summer; for the most part, the rivers are clean and transparent.

A mountain river is a serious obstacle. The crossing is especially difficult in rainy weather, when the water level rises noticeably. In the Caucasus, where there is a fairly dense network of roads and trails, there are bridges across almost all major rivers. The route must be tied to them. The shepherds build luggage, temporary bridges across large streams. You can find out about the condition of these crossings in villages and villages.

There are many lakes in this region. At altitude, the largest of them lie in carts left by ancient glaciers. Many small tarns and moraine lakes (some with ice until the end of summer) give these mountains a special charm.

The higher a mountainous country is raised, the deeper and more ancient stone layers are exposed and come into view as a result of weathering and erosion of rocks. When traveling through the valleys of the Kuban, you see near Cherkessk, near the river, Quaternary deposits and sedimentary rocks of the Tertiary period (up to 65 million years old), beyond Ust-Dzhegutinskaya - the Cretaceous period (up to 140 million years old). Then, at the entrance to Karachaevsk and beyond it, you cross a wide belt of Jurassic rocks (up to 200 million years old).

On the seismic map of the country, the Caucasus is classified as a 7-8 point zone. An earthquake in the mountains is dangerous due to the occurrence of rockfalls, collapse of cornices and mudflows. A strong earthquake, called the Chkhalta earthquake, occurred on July 16, 1963. Its epicenter was located near the village of Ptysh, which caused great destruction. A rockfall led to a tragedy in a group of climbers on the wall of Mount Dombay-Ulgena.

On the southern slope of the GKH, where there was a thunderstorm with rain at that time, landslides occurred. As a result, the road in the village was destroyed in several places. Chkhalta. The landslide blocked the upper reaches of the river. Ptysh. The river swept away the barrier, the mudflow washed away the banks and toppled the forest.

Although strong tremors are rare, their likelihood forces one to carefully approach the choice of bivouac site, critically assessing it (including ready-made sites) from the point of view of rockfall.

The climate of the area is determined by two factors: proximity to the Black Sea and the chain high mountains. The influence of the sea is stronger on the southern slopes, which intercept a significant part of the moisture from warm western and southwestern winds. At their foot and on the coast, about 1500 mm of precipitation falls per year. With altitude, the amount of precipitation increases, reaching 3000 mm or more. In winter, a lot of snow falls at moderate altitudes; in the highlands, the thickness of the snow cover reaches several meters.

It is colder and drier on the northern slopes. When crossing the GKH, this difference is very noticeable. As you ascend into the mountains, the temperature drops and the amount of precipitation increases. In Teberda, located at an altitude of about 1300 m, average temperature July +15.6 "C, January ~4" C, about 700 mm of precipitation falls per year.

In Dombay (1630 m) the temperature is several degrees lower, and the precipitation is twice as much. According to long-term observations at the Klukhorsky Pass weather station (2037 m), the height of the snow cover reaches 2 m, and on the pre-summit slopes it reaches 4 m. The rainiest months are May and June. The relatively dry season lasts from August to October. In August, frosts are already common at altitudes of 2500 m.

Over the last hundred years, the area of ​​most glaciers has decreased by about a quarter, and their number has increased due to fragmentation (although some small ones have disappeared completely). The average thickness of cirque glaciers is 25-30 m, and of large valley glaciers - 100 m. The glaciers continue to retreat, the moraines are covered with grass and bushes. The Caucasus is characterized by the proximity of glaciers and bright greenery. In the Hetskvara gorge in July, azalea blooms a few tens of meters from the glacier.

Avalanche danger occurs in late autumn in October - November, when snowfalls begin. Avalanches of dry snow occur during or immediately after heavy snowfalls (70-100 mm per day). During snowstorms, snow boards form. In cold winters with little snow, the cause of an avalanche can be the formation of a fragile layer of deep frost. With the transition of the average daily temperature above 0 °C in March - April, the time of wet avalanches begins. They are also possible in winter during thaws. Mass avalanches usually end by May, but in the highlands this period is delayed. On snowy slopes and under eaves, avalanche danger persists all year round.

Avalanche cones remain at the foot of the slopes until the middle, and in shaded areas until the end of summer. The danger of avalanches also exists in the middle mountains: avalanche centers, although rare, are known near Teberda and Arkhyz. Particular attention to avalanche danger is required when traveling in spring (May) and autumn.

Entering the mountains from the north, you first cross a belt of deciduous forests, starting from an altitude of 500-600 m. Its lower floor (up to 900-1000 m) is occupied by oak-hornbeam forests with hazel, ash, pear, and the upper (up to 1400 m) - beech. In wide developed parts of the valleys, such forests are found in islands, but they completely cover the steep, inaccessible slopes of the gorges. Alder and willow grow along the banks of the rivers. At altitudes from 1200-1400 m to 2200 m there are dark coniferous forests (fir, spruce). Dry sunny slopes and rocks are occupied by pine trees.

Above there is a subalpine belt, the limits of which range from 1800 to 2500 m. Above the edge of the tall-trunk forest stretches a strip of beech, birch, and maple woodland. Here there are thickets of rhododendrons, the bushes of which bloom in different time, and its white or cream inflorescences can be seen almost all summer. Even higher up lie tall grass meadows as tall as a man. There is a kingdom of flowers here: orange elecampane, blue bells, white daisies, pink hollyhocks, yellow lilies, crimson clover. Three-meter umbrellas of hogweed rise in the middle of the sea of ​​flowers. Touching it causes long-lasting burns.

On gentle slopes where livestock graze, the grass stand is poorer. Thickets of horse sorrel and poisonous hellebore stand out here. In alpine meadows (2500-3200 m), short grass does not hide the stones. The flower carpet is filled with bright blue hyacinths, purple primroses, yellow ranunculus, pink asters and purple bluebells. Grass and flowers also grow on rocky shelves high above the snowfields and ice.

Animal world includes more than 40 species of mammals and 120 species of birds. The forests are home to wild boar, roe deer, Caucasian deer, fox, lynx, jackal, and marten. The brown hare is found everywhere. The Altai squirrel, introduced in 1937, has spread. There are also wolves. In the Caucasian and Teberda nature reserves, work is underway to restore the herd that was exterminated at the beginning of the 20th century. Caucasian bison. Brown bear in summer it stays near the forest border, where you can stumble upon a nest left by it. It also enters valleys, especially raspberry fields. On the grassy ledges near the forest you can see a herd of chamois, and on the rocks in the upper reaches of the gorges - aurochs. Tur's "paths" follow barely noticeable ledges and shelves; traces of tur's are also found on snowfields. It is dangerous to be below these animals, because stones may fall from under their hooves!

Among the birds of the forest and meadow zones there are both common for the middle zone - jay, woodpecker, cuckoo, and mountain ones - stone partridge (chukar), griffon vulture, black vulture. In the highlands live the snowcock (a large gray turkey) and the black, yellow-beaked alpine jackdaw, which lives near glaciers and snowfields.

Among the reptiles found (up to the rocks of the Alpine belt) are lizards, grass snakes, copperheads, steppe and Caucasian vipers. Caucasian viper, endemic to Western Europe. Caucasus, found up to an altitude of 2500 m in clearings and overgrown screes. In the subalpine zone, the viper stays near rocks and screes. It can have different colors, but is characterized by a wide black zigzag stripe on the back. The snake is difficult to distinguish among dry fern leaves or stones covered with lichens.

There are trout in the rivers and some lakes.

To the West There are nature reserves in the Caucasus - Caucasian and Teberdinsky (with a branch in Arkhyz). Permission is required to stay there. In the gorges (B. Zelenchuk, Urup, B. Laba, etc.) reserves have been created where hunting, fishing and berry picking are prohibited.

The foothills and valleys, suitable for farming and gardening, are densely populated. The main type of economic activity is cattle breeding. The movement of livestock to mountain pastures occurs in May-June, the season usually lasts until September. For temporary residence, traditional koshas are used - huts made of logs, stone, shingles or twigs and tents.

Meadows in valleys where there are roads are used for haymaking. The mountaineers value them, clear them of stones and fence them. Under no circumstances should you trample the grass, shorten the paths, set up a bivouac on it, or throw stones around.

There is a democratic federal legal state with a republican form of government.

The names Russian Federation and Russia are equivalent (Constitution Russian Federation, article 1).

The head of state is the President of the Russian Federation, elected for four years by citizens of the Russian Federation on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage.

State power in the Russian Federation is exercised on the basis of division into legislative, executive and judicial.

The legislative body is the Federal Assembly - the parliament of the Russian Federation, consisting of two chambers - the Federation Council and the State Duma.

Executive power in the Russian Federation is exercised by the Government of the Russian Federation, consisting of the Chairman of the Government, his deputies and federal ministers.

Moscow is the capital of the Russian Federation

Justice in the Russian Federation is administered only by the court.

Russia in form government system is a federation consisting of 83 equal subjects: 21 republics, 9 territories, 46 regions, 2 federal cities, 1 autonomous region, 4 autonomous districts.

Russian Federation - Russia is the world's largest state by area, occupying 17,098.2 thousand km2, which is approximately 1/8 of the land (not counting).

The total population of Russia at the beginning of 2008 was 142.7 million people, of which the urban population accounted for 73%, the rural population - 27%. Average population density is 8.3 people. per 1 km2.

The capital of the state is Moscow (10.4 million people, 2008)

The official language of the state is Russian.

The monetary unit is the ruble.

Russia is located in the northeastern part of the largest continent, occupying about 1/3 of its territory, including the eastern part of Europe and northern Asia.

The European part of Russia includes the entire territory lying west of the Urals (about 23% of the entire area of ​​the country); The Asian part of Russia accounts for over 75% of the area. However, almost 80% of Russia's population is concentrated in its European part (including the entire Urals).

Stella "Asia"

The main part of the territory of Russia is located between 70° N. w. and 50° N. sh.; about 20% of the territory lies beyond the Arctic Circle.

The total length of the borders of the Russian Federation is 60,932.8 km, of which 38,807.5 km are sea borders and 22,125.3 km are land borders. The longest land border of the Russian Federation is with Mongolia and. Maritime borders exist with Japan and.

Extreme northern point country - 81°51" N - located on Cape Fligeli (Rudolph Island as part of the archipelago), and on the mainland - 77°43" N. w. - on Cape Chelyuskin (peninsula). The southernmost point - 41°10" N - is located 3 kilometers east of Mount Ragdan of the Main Caucasus Range. The easternmost point of the country is 169°02" W. - is located on Ratmanov Island in the Bering Strait, and on the mainland -169°40" W - on Cape Dezhnev (Chukchi Peninsula). The westernmost point is -19°38" E. d. - located in the Kaliningrad region on the border with Poland. The length of Russia's territory from west to east is 9 thousand km, and from north to south - 4 thousand km.

There are 11 within Russia.

The modern borders of the Russian Federation were formed over a long historical period. Some of them were inherited from the Russian Empire (the entire border with, the border with China and along most of their length). The current maritime border between Russia and the United States was also formed in the century before last, when the tsarist government sold Alaska and the Aleutian Islands to the United States in 1867. The border with Mongolia was finally agreed upon after its separation from China already in Soviet times, although in fact it was formed earlier.

A significant part of the current Russian borders was established as a result of the Second World War.

New ones, amounting to about 12 thousand km, arose as a result of the collapse of the USSR in 1991. The new independent states retained the borders of the former union republics. Russian diplomacy has done a great deal of work to formalize the new borders in accordance with international law. In most cases, experts managed to resolve controversial issues and avoid their politicization.

Russian borders are extremely diverse in morphology. Some of them pass along natural boundaries - large bodies of water, mountain ranges and watersheds. The total length of the country's river borders is 7.3 thousand km, and the lake borders are about 500 km. In the Caucasus, the border between Russia and and mainly runs along the Main Range, and the border with Kazakhstan partially runs along the Tigiretsky, Koksu, and Katunsky ridges.

The degree of development of the border strip depends on the morphological properties of the border and, in particular, on the degree of its coincidence with natural boundaries, which in turn largely determines the prerequisites for cross-border cooperation. The border territories of the Republic are distinguished by a high degree of economic and demographic development North Ossetia- Alania, Amur region and Jewish autonomous region, the south of which continues the main zone of Russian settlement and is distinguished by more favorable natural conditions. The population density is relatively high in the borderlands of the Orenburg region, as well as in such old developed areas as in the Belgorod, Bryansk and Pskov regions and even in some mountainous regions - in the Altai Republic and the Karachay-Cherkess Republic. On the contrary, the steppe regions of a number of regions bordering Kazakhstan and some mountainous regions in the North Caucasus are sparsely populated.

At the very border or very close to it there are such big cities, like Sochi (331.0 thousand inhabitants), Orsk (246.1 thousand inhabitants), Blagoveshchensk (214.3 thousand inhabitants), Novotroitsk (110.6 thousand inhabitants) and others.

The geographical and geopolitical position of Russia is closely connected with its territorial structure and predetermines many features of settlement and economy. It is distinguished by its transcontinental nature (the territory of the country covers part of Europe and Asia) and interoceanic extension (Russia directly accesses three oceans - the basin, the Pacific and the Arctic oceans.

Most of the sea coast falls on the Northern Seas, which are extremely difficult for navigation and remote from populated areas. 8–10% of Russian citizens live directly by the sea - three times less than the average on the planet. However, Russia has begun to actively restore its merchant fleet, which ranks 13th in the world in terms of tonnage.

The most accessible regional seas of the Arctic, Atlantic and each have 5–6 regions, with the northern and Far Eastern ones occupying 10–11% of the country’s territory with 2–3% of the population and gross domestic product, and the western ones - 1.6%, respectively, 11. 6% and 9.4%. The main ports of Russia are located in them.

Russia is the northernmost state. It accounts for half of the world's northern regions, with an area of ​​11 million km2, or 64% of the country's territory. The population density of the North is only 1 person. per km2, but in total about 10 million people live there. Russia is home to the northernmost city in the world with a population of over 1 million people. () and the northernmost city in the world with a population of more than 100 thousand (Norilsk). In general, the northern geographical location means large costs for heating and lighting, the need to build durable production facilities that are protected from adverse natural factors. Permafrost (often in combination with) increases the cost of any construction, spreading over 60% of the territory of Russia.

Natural climatic conditions- one of the reasons for the geographical asymmetry of the country: the eastern part of the countries is more mountainous, the climate there is more severe: St. Petersburg and lie on the same latitude, but frosts on the shores of the Baltic last 4.5 months, and on the Sea of ​​Okhotsk - 7, average temperatures in January are -8 ° and –20°С, respectively.

The share of the regions of the European part of Russia, including the Urals, in the entire territory of Russia is 1/4. 4/5 of the country's inhabitants live in these areas, and the vast majority of economic potential is concentrated here.

One of the consequences of the vastness of Russian spaces is the sparseness of the city network. The average distance between them in the populated area of ​​the European part of Russia is 45–75 km, beyond - about 250 km. Therefore, it is so important for Russia to have highly developed, cheap and efficient transport that ensures high mobility of the population. In a rarefied space, a special effect is achieved by the use of the concept of a settlement framework, based on the predominant development of cities located along transport axes - polyhighways. This saves transport costs and time spent moving between cities.

Due to the sparse population and geographical asymmetry, the deep inland geography of production in Russia, the transport intensity of the economy is high, i.e. the ratio of freight turnover of all types of mainline transport to the gross domestic product. At the beginning of this decade, it was 2.5–3 tkm per dollar of production, while in China, Australia, and Canada it was 0.7–1; in the USA - 0.55; in Europe - even 0.2–0.4 tkm. High energy intensity is functionally associated with this indicator. Average transportation distance railway- 1330 km, by air- more than 4500.

At the same time, Russia's vast territory means an abundance and diversity of natural resources. Mineral resources constitute the main item of Russian export, providing up to 70% of foreign exchange earnings. In Russia, 20 thousand deposits of almost all types of minerals have been discovered, 37% have been put into operation. Fuel and raw materials resources play an important geopolitical role. Russia's share in the world's proven oil reserves is almost 10%, a third (first place in the world - 2.5 times more than in second place), coal - 12%. Russia ranks first in the world in production and.
Especially rich natural resources high latitude areas. The Russian sector of the Arctic includes about a third of its entire area. The Arctic is 90% of the recoverable hydrocarbon resources of the entire continental shelf of Russia, 80% of all-Russian proven gas reserves, deposits of many other minerals - apatites, nickel and copper, tungsten, platinum group metals, tin, gold, manganese, chromite and titanium ores. In the Arctic zone there are companies that belong to the world giants - Gazprom, Norilsk, oil producing companies. About 11% of Russia's national income and 22% of exports are produced here (with 1% of the population). The Northern Sea Route is of strategic importance - a transcontinental route integrating the economic complex Far North and connecting the Far Eastern and Western regions of Russia.

The collapse of the USSR led to the formation of an enclave - the Kaliningrad region, now surrounded by EU countries - Poland and. Communications with it and maintaining the competitiveness of the region’s economy are an important geopolitical problem for Russia.

Russia maintains international relations with many in various fields (politics, economics, culture, healthcare, sports, etc.), as well as with various international organizations.

After the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (late 1991), Russia's position changed dramatically. Now it is firmly gaining the position of an equal partnership.

The priority direction of Russian foreign policy is the development of relations with the CIS countries. Russia continues to cooperate with organizations in which it is the legal successor of the USSR: UN (United Nations), OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe), CE (Council of Europe), EU (), APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Community), ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations), OAU (Organization of African Unity), etc.

Russia views international economic organizations as one of the forms of cooperation between states. Russia joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF), became a member of the World Bank Group formed by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), participates in the activities of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), and cooperates with the International Energy Agency. As the legal successor of the USSR, Russia cooperates with the International Labor Organization (ILO). Russia has observer status in the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Race is a historically established group of people that has common physical features: skin, eye and hair color, eye shape, eyelid structure, head shape, and others. Previously, it was common to divide races into “black” (Blacks), yellow (Asians) and white (Europeans), but now this classification is considered outdated and incomplete.

The simplest modern division is not too different from the “color” division. According to it, there are 3 main or large races: Negroid, Caucasoid and Mongoloid. Representatives of these three races have significant distinctive features.

Negroids are characterized by curly black hair, dark brown skin (sometimes almost black), brown eyes, strongly protruding jaws, a slightly protruding wide nose, and thick lips.

Caucasians typically have wavy or straight hair, relatively fair skin, varying eye colors, slightly protruding jaws, a narrow, prominent nose with a high bridge, and typically thin or medium lips.

Mongoloids have straight, coarse dark hair, yellowish skin tones, brown eyes, narrow eye shape, a flattened face with strongly prominent cheekbones, a narrow or medium-wide nose with a low bridge, and moderately thick lips.

In the expanded classification, it is customary to distinguish several more racial groups. For example, the Amerindian race (Indians, American race) is the indigenous population of the American continent. It is physiologically close to the Mongoloid race, however, the settlement of America began more than 20 thousand years ago, therefore, according to experts, it is incorrect to consider the Amerindians a branch of the Mongoloids.

Australoids (Australo-Oceanian race) are the indigenous population of Australia. An ancient race that had a huge range, limited to the regions: Hindustan, Tasmania, Hawaii, Kuril Islands. The appearance features of indigenous Australians - a large nose, beard, long wavy hair, massive eyebrows, powerful jaws - sharply distinguish them from Negroids.

Currently, there are few pure representatives of their races left. Mostly mestizos live on our planet - the result of a mixture of different races, which may have characteristics of different racial groups.

Time zones are conventionally defined parts of the Earth in which the same rules are accepted. local time.

Before the introduction of standard time, each city used its own local solar time, depending on geographic longitude. However, it was very inconvenient, especially in terms of train schedules. The modern time zone system first appeared in North America at the end of the 19th century. In Russia it became widespread in 1917, and by 1929 it was accepted throughout the world.

For greater convenience (in order not to enter local time for each degree of longitude), the Earth's surface was conventionally divided into 24 time zones. The boundaries of time zones are determined not by meridians, but by administrative units (states, cities, regions). This is also done for greater convenience. When moving from one time zone to another, the minutes and seconds (time) are usually preserved; only in some countries, local time differs from world time by 30 or 45 minutes.

For the reference point ( Prime Meridian or belt) adopted by the Greenwich Observatory in the suburbs of London. At the North and South Poles, the meridians converge at one point, so time zones are usually not observed there. Time at the poles is usually equated to universal time, although at polar stations it is sometimes kept in its own way.

GMT -12 - Date meridian

GMT -11 - o. Midway, Samoa

GMT -10 - Hawaii

GMT -9 - Alaska

GMT -8 - Pacific Time (USA and Canada), Tijuana

GMT -7 - Mountain Time, USA and Canada (Arizona), Mexico (Chihuahua, La Paz, Mazatlan)

GMT -6 - Central Time (USA and Canada), Central American Time, Mexico (Guadalajara, Mexico City, Monterrey)

GMT -5 - Eastern Time (USA and Canada), South American Pacific Time (Bogota, Lima, Quito)

GMT -4 - Atlantic Time (Canada), South American Pacific Time (Caracas, La Paz, Santiago)

GMT -3 - South American Eastern Time (Brasilia, Buenos Aires, Georgetown), Greenland

GMT -2 - Middle Atlantic Time

GMT -1 - Azores, Cape Verde

GMT - Greenwich Time (Dublin, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London), Casablanca, Monrovia

GMT +1 - Central European Time (Amsterdam, Berlin, Bern, Brussels, Vienna, Copenhagen, Madrid, Paris, Rome, Stockholm), Belgrade, Bratislava, Budapest, Warsaw, Ljubljana, Prague, Sarajevo, Skopje, Zagreb), West Central African Time

GMT +2 - Eastern European Time (Athens, Bucharest, Vilnius, Kiev, Chisinau, Minsk, Riga, Sofia, Tallinn, Helsinki, Kaliningrad), Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Turkey, South Africa

GMT +3 - Moscow time, East African time (Nairobi, Addis Ababa), Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia

GMT +4 - Samara time, United United Arab Emirates, Oman, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia

GMT +5 - Ekaterinburg time, West Asian time (Islamabad, Karachi, Tashkent)

GMT +6 - Novosibirsk, Omsk time, Central Asian time (Bangladesh, Kazakhstan), Sri Lanka

GMT +7 - Krasnoyarsk time, Southeast Asia(Bangkok, Jakarta, Hanoi)

GMT +8 - Irkutsk time, Ulaanbaatar, Kuala Lumpur, Hong Kong, China, Singapore, Taiwan, Western Australian time (Perth)

GMT +9 - Yakut time, Korea, Japan

GMT +10 - Vladivostok time, Eastern Australian time (Brisbane, Canberra, Melbourne, Sydney), Tasmania, Western Pacific time (Guam, Port Moresby)

GMT +11 - Magadan Time, Central Pacific Time (Solomon Islands, New Caledonia)

GMT +12 - Wellington

A wind rose is a diagram that depicts the pattern of changes in wind directions and speeds in a certain place over a certain period of time. It got its name due to its rose-like pattern. The first wind roses were known even before our era.

It is assumed that the wind rose was invented by sailors who were trying to identify patterns of changes in winds depending on the time of year. She helped determine when to start sailing in order to get to a certain destination.

The diagram is constructed as follows: the repeatability value (as a percentage) or wind speed is plotted on rays coming from a common center in different directions. The rays correspond to the cardinal directions: north, west, east, south, northeast, north-northeast, etc. Currently, the wind rose is usually constructed using long-term data for a month, season, or year.

Clouds are classified using Latin words to define appearance clouds observed from the ground. The word cumulus is the definition of cumulus clouds, stratus - stratus clouds, cirrus - cirrus, nimbus - nimbus.

In addition to the type of clouds, the classification describes their location. Usually there are several groups of clouds, the first three of which are determined by their height above the ground. The fourth group consists of clouds of vertical development, and the last group includes clouds of mixed types.

Upper clouds are formed in temperate latitudes above 5 km, in polar latitudes above 3 km, in tropical latitudes above 6 km. The temperature at this altitude is quite low, so they consist mainly of ice crystals. The upper level clouds are usually thin and white. The most common forms of upper clouds are cirrus and cirrostratus, which can usually be seen in good weather.

Mid-level clouds usually located at an altitude of 2-7 km in temperate latitudes, 2-4 km in polar latitudes and 2-8 km in tropical latitudes. They consist mainly of small particles of water, but at low temperatures they can also contain ice crystals. The most common types of mid-level clouds are altocumulus (altocumulus), altostratus (altostratus). They may have shadowed parts, which distinguishes them from cirrocumulus clouds. This type of cloud usually occurs as a result of air convection, as well as the gradual rise of air ahead of a cold front.

Low clouds They are located at altitudes below 2 km, where the temperature is quite high, so they consist mainly of water droplets. Only in the cold season. When the surface temperature is low, they contain particles of ice (hail) or snow. The most common types of low clouds are nimbostratus and stratocumulus - dark low clouds accompanied by moderate precipitation.

Clouds of vertical development - cumulus clouds, having the appearance of isolated cloud masses, the vertical dimensions of which are similar to the horizontal ones. They arise as a result of temperature convection and can reach heights of 12 km. The main types are fair weather cumulus (fair weather clouds) and cumulonimbus (cumulonimbus). Good weather clouds look like pieces of cotton wool. Their lifetime is from 5 to 40 minutes. Young fair weather clouds have sharply defined edges and bases, while the edges of older clouds are jagged and blurred.

Other types of clouds: contrails, billow clouds, mammatus, orographic, and pileus.

Atmospheric precipitation is water in a liquid or solid state that falls from clouds or is deposited from the air on the surface of the Earth (dew, frost). There are two main types of precipitation: blanket precipitation (occurs mainly during the passage of a warm front) and torrential precipitation (associated with cold fronts). Precipitation is measured by the thickness of the layer of water that fell over a certain period (usually mm/year). On average, precipitation on Earth is about 1000 mm/year. Precipitation below this value is called insufficient, and more is called excessive.

Water does not form in the sky - it gets there from the earth's surface. This happens in the following way: under the influence of sunlight, moisture gradually evaporates from the surface of the planet (mainly from the surface of oceans, seas and other bodies of water), then water vapor gradually rises upward, where under the influence of low temperatures it condenses (gas is converted into a liquid state) and freezing. This is how clouds are formed. As the mass of liquid in a cloud accumulates, it also becomes heavier. When a certain mass is reached, moisture from the cloud spills onto the ground in the form of rain.

If precipitation falls in an area with low temperatures, droplets of moisture freeze on their way to the ground, turning into snow. Sometimes they seem to stick together, causing snow to fall out in large flakes. This happens most often at not very low temperatures and strong winds. When the temperature is close to zero, the snow, approaching the ground, melts and becomes wet. Such snowflakes, falling to the ground or objects, immediately turn into drops of water. In those areas of the planet where the surface of the earth has managed to freeze, snow can remain as a cover for up to several months. In some particularly cold regions of the Earth (at the poles or high in the mountains), precipitation falls only in the form of snow, while in warm regions (tropics, the equator) there is no snow at all.

When frozen water particles move within a cloud, they expand and become denser. In this case, small pieces of ice are formed, which in this state fall to the ground. This is how hail is formed. Hail can fall even in summer - the ice does not have time to melt even when the temperature at the surface is high. The sizes of hailstones can vary: from a few millimeters to several centimeters.

Sometimes the moisture does not have time to rise into the sky, and then condensation occurs directly on the surface of the earth. This usually occurs when the temperature drops at night. In the summer, you can observe moisture settling on the surface of leaves and grass in the form of water droplets - this is dew. During the cold season, the smallest particles of water freeze, and frost forms instead of dew.

Soils are classified by type. The first scientist to classify soils was Dokuchaev. The following types of soils are found on the territory of the Russian Federation: Podzolic soils, tundra gley soils, Arctic soils, frozen-taiga soils, gray and brown forest soils and chestnut soils.

Tundra gley soils are found on plains. They are formed without much influence from vegetation. These soils are found in areas where there is permafrost (in the Northern Hemisphere). Often, gley soils are places where deer live and feed in summer and winter. An example of tundra soils in Russia is Chukotka, and in the world it is Alaska in the USA. In areas with such soils, people engage in farming. Potatoes, vegetables and various herbs grow on such land. To improve the fertility of tundra gley soils, the following types of work are used in agriculture: drainage of the most moisture-saturated lands and irrigation of arid areas. Methods for improving the fertility of these soils also include adding organic and mineral fertilizers.

Arctic soils are produced by thawing permafrost. This soil is quite thin. The maximum layer of humus (fertile layer) is 1-2 cm. This type of soil has a low acidic environment. This soil cannot be restored due to the harsh climate. These soils are common in Russia only in the Arctic (on a number of islands in the Arctic Ocean). Due to the harsh climate and small layer of humus, nothing grows on such soils.

Podzolic soils are common in forests. There is only 1-4% humus in the soil. Podzolic soils are obtained through the process of podzol formation. A reaction occurs with the acid. That is why this type of soil is also called acidic. Dokuchaev was the first to describe podzolic soils. In Russia, podzolic soils are common in Siberia and the Far East. Around the world, podzolic soils are found in Asia, Africa, Europe, the USA and Canada. Such soils must be properly cultivated in agriculture. They need to be fertilized, organic and mineral fertilizers added to them. Such soils are more useful in logging than in agriculture. After all, trees grow better on them than crops. Soddy-podzolic soils are a subtype of podzolic soils. In composition they are largely similar to podzolic soils. A characteristic feature of these soils is that they can be washed out more slowly by water, unlike podzolic soils. Soddy-podzolic soils are found mainly in the taiga (the territory of Siberia). This soil contains up to 10% fertile layer on the surface, and at depth the layer sharply decreases to 0.5%.

Permafrost-taiga soils were formed in forests under permafrost conditions. They are found only in continental climates. The greatest depths of these soils do not exceed 1 meter. This is caused by the proximity to the surface of permafrost. The humus content is only 3-10%. As a subspecies, there are mountainous permafrost-taiga soils. They form in the taiga on rocks that are covered with ice only in winter. These soils are found in Eastern Siberia. They are found in the Far East. More often, mountain permafrost-taiga soils are found next to small bodies of water. Outside Russia, such soils exist in Canada and Alaska.

Gray forest soils are formed in forest areas. A prerequisite for the formation of such soils is the presence of a continental climate. Deciduous forest and herbaceous vegetation. The places of formation contain an element necessary for such soil - calcium. Thanks to this element, water does not penetrate deep into the soil and does not erode them. These soils are gray in color. The humus content in gray forest soils is 2-8 percent, that is, the soil fertility is average. Gray forest soils are divided into gray, light gray, and dark gray. These soils predominate in Russia in the territory from Transbaikalia to Carpathian Mountains. Fruit and grain crops are grown on the soils.

Brown forest soils are common in forests: mixed, coniferous and broad-leaved. These soils are found only in warm temperate climates. The soil color is brown. Typically brown soils look like this: on the surface of the ground there is a layer of fallen leaves, about 5 cm high. Next comes the fertile layer, which is 20 and sometimes 30 cm. Even lower is a layer of clay of 15-40 cm. There are several subtypes of brown soils. Subtypes vary depending on temperatures. There are: typical, podzolized, gley (surface gley and pseudopodzolic). On the territory of the Russian Federation, soils are distributed in the Far East and in the foothills of the Caucasus. Low-maintenance crops such as tea, grapes and tobacco are grown on these soils. Forests grow well on such soils.

Chestnut soils are common in steppes and semi-deserts. The fertile layer of such soils is 1.5-4.5%. Which indicates average soil fertility. This soil has chestnut, light chestnut and dark chestnut colors. Accordingly, there are three subtypes of chestnut soil, differing in color. On light chestnut soils, farming is possible only with abundant watering. The main purpose of this land is pasture. The following crops grow well on dark chestnut soils without watering: wheat, barley, oats, sunflower, millet. There are slight differences in the chemical composition of chestnut soil. It is divided into clayey, sandy, sandy loam, light loamy, medium loamy and heavy loamy. Each of them has a slightly different chemical composition. The chemical composition of chestnut soil is varied. The soil contains magnesium, calcium, and water-soluble salts. Chestnut soil tends to recover quickly. Its thickness is maintained by annually falling grass and leaves of trees rare in the steppe. You can get good harvests from it, provided there is a lot of moisture. After all, steppes are usually dry. Chestnut soils in Russia are common in the Caucasus, the Volga region and Central Siberia.

There are many types of soils on the territory of the Russian Federation. They all differ in chemical and mechanical composition. At the moment, agriculture is on the verge of crisis. Russian soils must be valued like the land on which we live. Care for soils: fertilize them and prevent erosion (destruction).

The biosphere is a collection of parts of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, which is populated by living organisms. This term was introduced in 1875 by the Austrian geologist E. Suess. The biosphere does not occupy a definite position, like other shells, but is located within their boundaries. Thus, waterfowl and aquatic plants are part of the hydrosphere, birds and insects are part of the atmosphere, and plants and animals living in the ground are part of the lithosphere. The biosphere also covers everything related to the activities of living beings.

Living organisms contain about 60 chemical elements, the main of which are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, potassium, iron and calcium. Living organisms can adapt to life in extreme conditions. Spores of some plants can withstand ultra-low temperatures down to -200°C, and some microorganisms (bacteria) survive at temperatures up to 250°C. The inhabitants of the deep sea withstand enormous water pressure, which would instantly crush a person.

Living organisms do not only mean animals, plants, bacteria and fungi are also considered living things. Moreover, plants account for 99% of the biomass, while animals and microorganisms account for only 1%. Thus, plants make up the vast majority of the biosphere. The biosphere is a powerful reservoir of solar energy. This occurs due to plant photosynthesis. Thanks to living organisms, the circulation of substances on the planet occurs.

According to experts, life on Earth originated approximately 3.5 billion years ago in the World Ocean. This is exactly the age that was assigned to the oldest organic remains found. Since scientists estimate the age of our planet to be around 4.6 billion years, we can say that living beings appeared at an early stage of the Earth’s development. The biosphere has the greatest influence on the rest of the Earth's shells, although not always beneficial. Inside the shell, living organisms also actively interact with each other.

The atmosphere (from the Greek atmos - steam and sphaira - ball) is the gaseous shell of the Earth, which is held by its gravity and rotates with the planet. The physical state of the atmosphere is determined by climate, and the main parameters of the atmosphere are composition, density, pressure and air temperature. Air density and Atmosphere pressure decrease with height. The atmosphere is divided into several layers depending on temperature changes: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere. Between these layers there are transitional regions called the tropopause, stratopause, and so on.

The troposphere is the lower layer of the atmosphere, in the polar regions it is located up to a height of 8-10 km, in temperate latitudes up to 10-12 km, and at the equator - 16-18 km. The troposphere contains about 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere and almost all water vapor. The air density here is greatest. For every 100 m rise, the temperature in the troposphere decreases by an average of 0.65°. The upper layer of the troposphere, which is intermediate between it and the stratosphere, is called the tropopause.

The stratosphere is the second layer of the atmosphere, which is located at an altitude of 11 to 50 km. Here, the temperature, on the contrary, increases with altitude. At the border with the troposphere it reaches approximately -56ºС, and at an altitude of about 50 km it rises to 0ºС. The region between the stratosphere and mesosphere is called the stratopause. In the stratosphere there is a layer called the ozone layer, which determines the upper limit of the biosphere. The ozone layer is also a kind of shield that protects living organisms from the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the Sun. Complex chemical processes occurring in this shell are accompanied by the release of light energy (for example, the northern lights). About 20% of the atmosphere's mass is concentrated here.

The next layer of the atmosphere is the mesosphere. It starts at an altitude of 50 km and ends at an altitude of 80-90 km. The air temperature in the mesosphere decreases with height and reaches -90ºС in its upper part. The intermediate layer between the mesosphere and the thermosphere that follows it is the mesopause.

The thermosphere or ionosphere begins at an altitude of 80-90 km and ends at an altitude of 800 km. The air temperature here rises quite quickly, reaching several hundred and even thousands of degrees.

The last part of the atmosphere is the exosphere or scattering zone. It is located above 800 km. This space is already practically devoid of air. At an altitude of about 2000-3000 km, the exosphere gradually turns into the so-called near-space vacuum, which does not enter the Earth's atmosphere.

The hydrosphere is the water shell of the Earth, which is located between the atmosphere and the lithosphere and is a collection of oceans, seas and surface waters of the land. The hydrosphere also includes groundwater, ice and snow, water contained in the atmosphere and in living organisms. The bulk of water is concentrated in the seas and oceans, rivers and lakes, which cover 71% of the planet's surface. The second place in terms of volume of water is occupied by groundwater, the third is ice and snow in the Arctic and Antarctic regions and mountainous regions. The total volume of water on Earth is approximately 1.39 billion km³.

Water, along with oxygen, is one of the most important substances on earth. It is part of all living organisms on the planet. For example, a person consists of approximately 80% water. Water also plays an important role in shaping the topography of the Earth's surface and transporting chemicals deep within the Earth and on its surface.

Water vapor contained in the atmosphere acts as a powerful solar radiation filter and climate regulator.

The main volume of water on the planet is made up of the salty waters of the World Ocean. On average, their salinity is 35 ppm (1 kg of ocean water contains 35 g of salts). The highest salinity of water in the Dead Sea is 270-300 ppm. For comparison, in the Mediterranean Sea this figure is 35-40 ppm, in the Black Sea - 18 ppm, and in the Baltic Sea - only 7. According to experts, the chemical composition of ocean waters is in many ways similar to the composition of human blood - they contain almost all known chemical elements to us, only in different proportions. The chemical composition of fresher groundwater is more diverse and depends on the composition of the host rocks and the depth of occurrence.

The waters of the hydrosphere are in constant interaction with the atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. This interaction is expressed in the transition of water from one type to another, and is called the water cycle. According to most scientists, it was in water that life on our planet originated.

Volumes of hydrosphere waters:

Sea and ocean waters – 1370 million km³ (94% of the total volume)

Groundwater – 61 million km³ (4%)

Ice and snow – 24 million km³ (2%)

Land reservoirs (rivers, lakes, swamps, reservoirs) – 500 thousand km³ (0.4%)

The lithosphere is the solid shell of the Earth, which includes the earth's crust and part of the upper mantle. The thickness of the lithosphere on land on average ranges from 35-40 km (in flat areas) to 70 km (in mountainous areas). Under the ancient mountains the thickness of the earth's crust is even greater: for example, under the Himalayas its thickness reaches 90 km. The Earth's crust under the oceans is also the lithosphere. Here it is thinnest - on average about 7-10 km, and in some areas Pacific Ocean- up to 5 km.

The thickness of the earth's crust can be determined by the speed of propagation of seismic waves. The latter also provide some information about the properties of the mantle located under the earth's crust and included in the lithosphere. The lithosphere, as well as the hydrosphere and atmosphere, was formed mainly as a result of the release of substances from the upper mantle of the young Earth. Its formation continues today, mainly at the bottom of the oceans.

Most of the lithosphere is made up of crystalline substances that were formed during the cooling of magma - molten matter in the depths of the Earth. As the magma cooled, hot solutions formed. Walking through the cracks in earth's crust, they cooled and released the substances they contained. Since some minerals disintegrate with changes in temperature and pressure, they were transformed into new substances on the surface.

The lithosphere is exposed to the influence of the air and water shells of the Earth (atmosphere and hydrosphere), which is expressed in weathering processes. Physical weathering is a mechanical process by which rock is crushed into smaller particles without changing its chemical composition. Chemical weathering leads to the formation of new substances. The rate of weathering is influenced by the biosphere, as well as land topography and climate, water composition and other factors.

As a result of weathering, loose continental sediments were formed, the thickness of which ranges from 10-20 cm on steep slopes to tens of meters on plains and hundreds of meters in depressions. These deposits formed soils that play a vital role in the interaction of living organisms with the earth’s crust.

Terrain orientation includes determining one’s location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent terrain objects (landmarks), maintaining a given or selected direction of movement towards a specific object. The ability to navigate the terrain is especially necessary when you are in sparsely populated and unfamiliar areas.

You can navigate using a map, a compass, or the stars. Landmarks can also be various objects of natural (river, swamp, tree) or artificial (lighthouse, tower) origin.

When navigating on a map, it is necessary to associate the image on the map with a real object. The easiest way is to go to the bank of a river or a road, and then turn the map until the direction of the line (road, river) on the map coincides with the direction of the line on the ground. Objects located to the right and left of the line on the ground should be on the same sides as on the map.

Orienting a map using a compass is used mainly in terrain that is difficult to navigate (in a forest, in a desert), where it is usually difficult to find landmarks. Under these conditions, the compass is used to determine the direction to the north, and the map is positioned with the upper side of the frame towards the north so that the vertical line of the map coordinate grid coincides with the longitudinal axis of the magnetic needle of the compass. Please be aware that compass readings may be affected by metal objects, power lines and electronic devices located in close proximity to the compass.

After the location on the ground is determined, you need to determine the direction of movement and azimuth (deviation of the direction of movement in degrees from the north pole of the compass clockwise). If the route is not a straight line, then you need to accurately determine the distance after which you need to change the direction of movement. You can also select a specific landmark on the map and, having then found it on the ground, change the direction of movement from it.

In the absence of a compass, the cardinal directions can be determined as follows:

The bark of most trees is rougher and darker on the north side;

On coniferous trees, resin tends to accumulate on the south side;

The annual rings on fresh stumps on the north side are located closer to each other;

On the north side there are trees, stones, stumps, etc. covered earlier and more abundantly with lichens and fungi;

Anthills are located on the southern side of trees, stumps and bushes, the southern slope of the anthills is gentle, the northern slope is steep;

In summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side;

Separate trees have crowns that are lush and dense on the south side;

The altars of Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran kirks face east, and the main entrances are located on the west side;

The raised end of the lower crossbar of the church cross faces north.

A geographic map is a visual representation of the earth's surface on a plane. The map shows the location and state of various natural and social phenomena. Depending on what is shown on the maps, they are called political, physical, etc.

Cards are classified according to various criteria:

By scale: large-scale (1: 10,000 - 1: 100,000), medium-scale (1: 200,000 - 1: 1,000,000) and small-scale maps (smaller than 1: 1,000,000). Scale determines the relationship between the actual size of an object and the size of its image on the map. Knowing the scale of the map (it is always indicated on it), you can use simple calculations and special measuring instruments (ruler, curvimeter) to determine the size of an object or the distance from one object to another.

Based on their content, maps are divided into general geographical and thematic. Thematic maps are divided into physical-geographical and socio-economic. Physico- geographic Maps used to show, for example, the nature of the relief of the earth's surface or climatic conditions in a certain area. Socio-economic maps show the borders of countries, the location of roads, industrial facilities, etc.

Based on territory coverage, geographic maps are divided into world maps, maps of continents and parts of the world, regions of the world, individual countries and parts of countries (regions, cities, districts, etc.).

According to their purpose, geographic maps are divided into reference, educational, navigation, etc.