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The Incas are an Indian tribe that inhabited South America before the arrival of Europeans. They created a powerful empire with its capital in the city of Cuzco on the territory of the state of Peru. The Inca Empire was inhabited by about 12 million people, and the area extended through the lands of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, Chile and Argentina.
The Incas managed to create a great civilization. They were well versed in mathematics, astronomy and architecture. This knowledge helped them build unusual structures and make new discoveries. The great achievement of the Inca culture, which has survived to our days, is the city of Machu Picchu, built high in the mountains. It contains various buildings and temples in which the Incas performed rituals. A water pipe was brought to the city, providing residents with water. On special terraces, peasants grew various vegetables that were used for cooking.
The Incas had their own religion. It was based on various natural phenomena. The Incas worshiped different gods. The sun god, Inti, played an important role. He was considered the progenitor of life on Earth, since the sun is a source of light and heat. The Indians considered representatives of their nobility to be direct descendants of Inti. In the city of Machu Picchu, they built a temple of the Sun, in which they observed the heavenly body.
In addition, the Incas considered sacred some rocks, which they called huaca. Ancient legends of the Indians said that celestial objects went underground during the creation of the world, and then came out through rocks and caves.
The great empire ceased to exist in 1572 after a long war with the Spaniards that lasted for many years. Abandoned cities, ancient temples, ceramic psuda and much more, reminiscent of the former greatness of the mighty Inca country, have survived to this day in memory of the Inca civilization.
THE INCAS
an Indian tribe that lived in Peru and created, shortly before the Spanish conquest, a vast empire centered in Cuzco, in the Peruvian Andes. The Inca Empire, one of two empires that existed in the New World at the time of Columbus (the other being the Aztec), stretched from north to south from Colombia to Central Chile and included the territories of present-day Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, northern Chile and northwestern Argentina . The Indians called the Inca only the emperor, and the conquistadors used this word to refer to the entire tribe, which in the pre-Columbian era, apparently, used the self-name "capac-kuna" ("great", "illustrious"). The landscapes and natural conditions of the former Inca Empire were very diverse. In the mountains between 2150 and 3000 m a.s.l. temperate climatic zones are located, favorable for intensive agriculture. In the southeast, a huge mountain range is divided into two ranges, between which, at an altitude of 3840 m, there is a vast plateau with Lake Titicaca. This and other high plateaus extending south and east of Bolivia all the way to northwestern Argentina are called altiplanos. These treeless grassy plains are in the continental climate zone with hot sunny days and cool nights. Many Andean tribes lived on the altiplano. To the southeast of Bolivia, the mountains break off and give way to the boundless expanse of the Argentine pampa. The Pacific coastline of Peru, starting from 3°S. and up to the Maule River in Chile, is a continuous zone of deserts and semi-deserts. The reason for this is the cold Antarctic Humboldt Current, which cools the air currents coming from the sea to the mainland and prevents them from condensing. However, coastal waters are very rich in plankton and, accordingly, fish, and fish attract seabirds, whose droppings (guano), covering the deserted coastal islands, are extremely valuable fertilizer. Coastal plains, stretching from north to south for 3200 km, do not exceed 80 km in width. Approximately every 50 km they are crossed by rivers flowing into the ocean. Ancient cultures flourished in the river valleys, based on irrigated agriculture. The Incas managed to connect two different zones of Peru, the so-called. Sierra (mountainous) and Costa (coastal), into a single social, economic and cultural space. The eastern spurs of the Andes are dotted with deep wooded valleys and turbulent rivers. Further to the east stretch the jungle - the Amazonian selva. The Incas called "yungas" the hot, humid foothills and their inhabitants. The local Indians offered fierce resistance to the Incas, who were never able to subdue them.
STORY
pre-Inca period. The culture of the Incas was formed relatively late. Long before the appearance of the Incas on the historical scene, back in the 3rd millennium BC, settled tribes lived on the coast, who were engaged in the manufacture of cotton fabrics and grew maize, pumpkins and beans. The oldest of the great Andean cultures is the Chavin culture (12th-8th centuries BC - 4th century AD). Its center, the city of Chavin de Huantar, located in the Central Andes, retained its importance even in the Inca era. Later, other cultures developed on the northern coast, among which the early class state of Mochica (ca. 1st century BC - 8th century AD) stands out, creating magnificent works of architecture, ceramics and weaving. On the south coast flourished the enigmatic Paracas culture (c. 4th century BC - 4th century AD), famous for its fabrics, undeniably the most skillful in all of pre-Columbian America. Paracas influenced the early Nazca culture, which developed further south in five oasis valleys. In the basin of Lake Titicaca, approx. 8th c. the great Tiahuanaco culture was formed. The capital and ceremonial center of Tiahuanaco, located on the southeastern tip of the lake, are built from hewn stone slabs fastened with bronze spikes. The famous Gate of the Sun is carved from a huge stone monolith. In the upper part there is a wide bas-relief belt with images of the Sun God, who weeps in the form of condors and mythological creatures. The motif of the weeping deity can be traced in many Andean and coastal cultures, in particular in the Huari culture, which developed near the present Ayacucho. Apparently, it was from Huari that religious and military expansion took place down the Pisco valley towards the coast. Judging by the spread of the weeping god motif, from the 10th to the 13th centuries. the state of Tiahuanaco subjugated most of the peoples of the Costa. After the collapse of the empire, local tribal associations, freed from external oppression, created their own state formations. The most significant of them was the state of Chimu-Chimor (14th century - 1463), which fought with the Incas, with its capital Chan Chan (near the present port of Trujillo). This city with huge stepped pyramids, irrigated gardens and stone-lined pools covered an area of 20.7 square meters. km. One of the centers of ceramic production and weaving has developed here. The state of Chimu, which extended its power along the 900-kilometer line of the Peruvian coast, had an extensive network of roads. Thus, having an ancient and high cultural tradition in the past, the Incas were rather heirs than founders of Peruvian culture.
First Inca. The legendary first Inca Manco Capac founded Cuzco around the beginning of the 12th century. The city lies at an altitude of 3416 m above sea level. in a deep valley running from north to south between two steep ridges of the Andes. According to legend, Manco Capac, at the head of his tribe, came to this valley from the south. At the direction of the sun god, his father, he threw a golden rod at his feet and, when it was swallowed up by the earth (a good sign of its fertility), he founded a city in this place. Historical sources, partially confirmed by archeological data, indicate that the history of the rise of the Incas, one of the countless Andean tribes, begins in the 12th century, and their ruling dynasty has 13 names - from Manco Capac to Atahualpa, who was killed by the Spaniards in 1533.
Conquests. The Incas began to expand their possessions from the territories immediately adjacent to the Cusco Valley. By 1350, during the reign of Inca Rocky, they conquered all the lands near Lake Titicaca in the south, and the nearby valleys in the east. Soon they moved north and further east and subjugated the territories in the upper reaches of the Urubamba River, after which they directed their expansion to the west. Here they faced fierce resistance from the Sora and Rukan tribes, but emerged victorious from the confrontation. Around 1350, the Incas built a suspension bridge across the deep canyon of the Apurimac River. Previously, it was crossed by three bridges in the southwest, but now the Incas made a direct route from Cuzco to Andahuaylas. This bridge, the longest in the empire (45 m), was called by the Incas "huacachaca", the sacred bridge. A conflict with the powerful militant tribe of the Chanca, who controlled the Apurimac Pass, became inevitable. At the end of the reign of Viracocha (d. 1437), the Chanca made a sudden raid on the lands of the Incas and laid siege to Cusco. Viracocha fled to the Urubamba valley, leaving his son Pachacutec (lit. "earth shaker") to defend the capital. The heir brilliantly coped with the task assigned to him and utterly defeated the enemies. During the reign of Pachacutec (1438-1463), the Incas expanded their possessions to the north to Lake Junin, and in the south they conquered the entire basin of Lake Titicaca. Pachacutec's son Tupac Inca Yupanqui (1471-1493) extended the power of the Incas to the territory of present-day Chile, Bolivia, Argentina and Ecuador. In 1463 the troops of Tupac Inca Yupanqui conquered the state of Chima, and its rulers were taken to Cusco as hostages. The last conquests were made by Emperor Huayna Capac, who came to power in 1493, a year after Columbus reached the New World. He annexed the Chachapoyas empire in northern Peru, on the right bank of the Marañon River in its upper reaches, subjugated the warlike tribes of the island of Puna near Ecuador and the adjacent coast in the area of \u200b\u200bpresent Guayaquil, and in 1525 the northern border of the empire reached the Ancasmayo River, where the border between Ecuador now lies. and Colombia.
INCA EMPIRE AND CULTURE
Language. Quechua, the language of the Incas, has a very distant relationship with the Aymara language, which was spoken by the Indians who lived near Lake Titicaca. It is not known what language the Incas spoke before Pachacutec elevated Quechua to the rank of the state language in 1438. Through a policy of conquest and migration, Quechua spread throughout the empire and is still spoken by most Peruvian Indians to this day.
Agriculture. Initially, the population of the Inca state consisted for the most part of farmers who, if necessary, took up arms. Their daily life was subject to the agricultural cycle, and under the guidance of connoisseurs, they turned the empire into an important center for the cultivation of plants. More than half of all food consumed in the world today comes from the Andes. Among them are over 20 varieties of corn and 240 varieties of potatoes, camote (sweet potatoes), squash and pumpkin, various varieties of beans, cassava (from which flour was made), peppers, peanuts and quinoa (wild buckwheat). The most important agricultural crop of the Incas was the potato, which can withstand severe cold and grow at altitudes up to 4600 m above sea level. Alternately freezing and thawing potatoes, the Incas dehydrated them to the point that they turned them into a dry powder called chuno. Corn (sara) was grown at altitudes up to 4100 m above sea level. and was consumed in various forms: cheese on the cob (choklo), dried and lightly fried (kolyo), in the form of hominy (mote) and turned into an alcoholic drink (saraiyaka, or chicha). To make the latter, women chewed corn kernels and spat the pulp into a vat, where the resulting mass, under the influence of saliva enzymes, fermented and released alcohol. In that era, all Peruvian tribes were at approximately the same technological level. The work was carried out jointly. The main tool of the farmer's labor was the taklya, a primitive digging stick - a wooden stake with a point fired for strength. Arable land was available, but by no means in abundance. Rains in the Andes usually fall from December to May, but dry years are not uncommon. Therefore, the Incas irrigated the land using canals, many of which testify to a high level of engineering. To protect soils from erosion, terraced agriculture was used by pre-Inca tribes, and the Incas improved this technology. The Andean peoples practiced predominantly sedentary agriculture and rarely resorted to slash-and-burn agriculture, adopted by the Indians of Mexico and Central America, in which areas cleared of forests were sown for 1-2 years and left as soon as the soil was depleted. This is explained by the fact that the Central American Indians did not have natural fertilizers, with the exception of rotten fish and human excrement, while in Peru the farmers of the coast had huge reserves of guano, and in the mountains llama (taki) manure was used for fertilizer.
Lamas. These camelids are descended from wild guanacos that were domesticated thousands of years before the arrival of the Incas. Lamas endure alpine cold and desert heat; they serve as pack animals capable of carrying up to 40 kg of cargo; they give wool for making clothes and meat - it is sometimes dried in the sun, calling it "charki". Llamas, like camels, tend to defecate in one place, so that their dung is easy to collect to fertilize the fields. Lamas played an important role in the formation of the settled agricultural cultures of Peru.
social organization. Islew. At the base of the social pyramid of the Inca empire was a kind of community - Ailyu. It was formed from family clans who lived together in the territory allotted to them, jointly owned land and livestock, and shared crops among themselves. Almost everyone belonged to one or another community, was born and died in it. Communities were small and large - up to the whole city. The Incas did not know individual landownership: the land could only belong to the ailyu or, later, the emperor and, as it were, was rented out to a member of the community. Every autumn there was a redistribution of land - plots increased or decreased depending on the size of the family. All agricultural work in the Islew was done jointly. At the age of 20, men were supposed to marry. If the young man himself could not find a mate, a wife was chosen for him. In the lower social strata, the strictest monogamy was maintained, while the representatives of the ruling class practiced polygamy. Some women had the opportunity to leave the ailya and improve their situation. We are talking about the "chosen ones" who, for their beauty or special talents, could be taken to Cuzco or to the provincial center, where they were taught the art of cooking, weaving or religious rituals. Dignitaries often married the "chosen ones" they liked, and some became the concubines of the Inca himself.
State of Tahuantinsuyu. The name of the Inca empire - Tahuantinsuyu - literally means "four connected cardinal points". Four roads ran out of Cuzco in different directions, and each, regardless of its length, bore the name of the part of the empire where it led. Antisuyu included all the lands east of Cuzco - the Eastern Cordillera and the Amazonian selva. From here, the Incas were threatened with raids by tribes that they had not pacified. Continsuyu united the western lands, including the conquered cities of the Costa - from Chan Chan in the north to Rimac in Central Peru (the location of present-day Lima) and Arequipa in the south. Collasuyu, the most extensive part of the empire, extended south from Cuzco, covering Bolivia with Lake Titicaca and parts of modern Chile and Argentina. Chinchasuyu ran north to Rumichaki. Each of these parts of the empire was ruled by an apo, related by blood to the Inca and answerable only to him.
Decimal administrative system. The social and, accordingly, the economic organization of Inca society was based, with some regional differences, on a decimal administrative-hierarchical system. The accounting unit was the purik - an adult capable man who has a household and is able to pay taxes. Ten households had their own, so to speak, "foreman" (the Incas called him pacha-kamayok), a hundred households were headed by a pacha-kuraka, a thousand - by a fry (usually managing a large village), ten thousand - by the provincial governor (omo-kuraka), and ten The provinces made up a "quarter" of the empire and were ruled by the apo mentioned above. Thus, for every 10,000 households, there were 1,331 officials of various ranks.
Inca. The new emperor was usually elected by a council of members of the royal family. Direct succession to the throne was not always respected. As a rule, the emperor was chosen from the sons of the lawful wife (koya) of the deceased ruler. The Inca had one official wife with countless concubines. So, according to some estimates, Huayna Capac had about five hundred sons alone, who happened to live already under Spanish rule. His offspring, who constituted a special royal ailya, the Inca appointed to the most honorable positions. The Inca Empire was a true theocracy, since the emperor was not only the supreme ruler and priest, but also, in the eyes of the common people, a demigod. In this totalitarian state, the emperor had absolute power, limited only by customs and fear of rebellion.
Taxes. Each purik was obliged to partially work for the state. This compulsory labor service was called "mita". Only state dignitaries and priests were exempted from it. Each aylyu, in addition to its own land allotment, jointly cultivated the field of the Sun and the field of the Inca, giving the crops from these fields to the priesthood and the state, respectively. Another type of labor service extended to public works - mining and construction of roads, bridges, temples, fortresses, royal residences. All these works were carried out under the supervision of experts-professionals. With the help of the kipu knot letter, an accurate record was kept of the fulfillment of duties by each aylyu. In addition to labor duties, each purik was a member of the detachments of rural law enforcement officers and could be called to war at any moment. If he went to war, the community members cultivated his plot of land.
Colonization. In order to subjugate and assimilate the conquered peoples, the Incas involved them in a system of labor duties. As soon as the Incas conquered a new territory, they expelled all unreliable people from there and installed Quechua speakers. The latter were called "mita-kona" (in the Spanish vowel "mitamaes"). The remaining local residents were not forbidden to observe their customs, wear traditional clothes and speak their native language, but all officials were required to know Quechua. The mita-kona was entrusted with military tasks (protection of border fortresses), managerial and economic ones, and in addition, the colonists had to introduce the conquered peoples to the Inca culture. If the road under construction ran through a completely deserted area, these areas were settled by mita-kona, who were obliged to oversee the road and bridges and thereby spread the power of the emperor everywhere. The colonists received significant social and economic privileges, similar to the Roman legionaries who served in outlying provinces. The integration of the conquered peoples into a single cultural and economic space was so deep that 7 million people still speak Quechua, the Ailyu tradition is preserved among the Indians, and the influence of the Inca culture in folklore, agricultural practice, and psychology is still tangible over a vast territory.
Roads, bridges and couriers. Excellent roads with a well-functioning courier service made it possible to keep a vast territory under unified control. The Incas used the roads laid by their predecessors and built ca. 16,000 km of new roads designed for all weather conditions. Since the pre-Columbian civilizations did not know the wheel, the Inca roads were intended for pedestrians and caravans of llamas. The road along the ocean coast, stretching for 4055 km from Tumbes in the north to the Maule River in Chile, had a standard width of 7.3 m. The Andean mountain road was somewhat narrower (from 4.6 to 7.3 m), but longer (5230 km). At least a hundred bridges were built on it - wooden, stone or cable; four bridges crossed the gorges of the Apurimac River. Every 7.2 km there were distance signs, and every 19-29 km there were stations for travelers to rest. In addition, courier stations were located every 2.5 km. Couriers (chasks) transmitted news and orders by relay, and in this way information was transmitted over 2000 km in 5 days.
Saving information. Historical events and legends were kept in memory by specially trained storytellers. The Incas invented a mnemonic for storing information called "kipu" (lit. "knot"). It was a rope or stick, from which colored laces with knots hung. The information contained in the kipu was orally explained by a specialist in knot writing, kipu-kamayok, otherwise it would have remained incomprehensible. Each ruler of the province kept a lot of kipu-kamayok with him, which kept meticulous records of the population, warriors, and taxes. The Incas used the decimal system, they even had a zero symbol (skipping the knot). The Spanish conquistadors left rave reviews for the quipu system. The courtiers of the quipu-kamayok performed the duties of historiographers, compiling lists of the deeds of the Inca. Through their efforts, an official version of the history of the state was created, excluding mention of the achievements of the conquered peoples and asserting the absolute priority of the Incas in the formation of the Andean civilization.
Religion. The religion of the Incas was closely connected with state administration. The demiurge god Viracocha was considered the ruler of all things, he was assisted by deities of a lower rank, among which the sun god Inti was most revered. The veneration of the sun god, who became a symbol of Inca culture, was of an official nature. The Inca religion included numerous decentralized cults of gods who personified natural realities. In addition, the veneration of magical and sacred objects (waka) was practiced, which could be a river, lake, mountain, temple, stones collected from the fields. Religion was practical and permeated the life of the Incas. Agriculture was revered as a sacred occupation, and everything connected with it became huaca. The Incas believed in the immortality of the soul. It was believed that an aristocrat, regardless of his behavior in earthly life, after death enters the abode of the Sun, where it is always warm and abundance reigns; as for commoners, only virtuous people got there after death, and sinners went to a kind of hell (oko-paka), where they suffered from cold and hunger. Thus, religion and customs influenced the behavior of people. The ethics and morality of the Incas boiled down to one principle: "Ama sua, ama lyulya, ama chela" - "Do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy."
Art. Inca art gravitated towards rigor and beauty. Weaving from llama wool was distinguished by a high artistic level, although it was inferior in richness of decor to the fabrics of the peoples of the Costa. Widely practiced carving of semi-precious stones and shells, which the Incas received from the coastal peoples. However, the main art of the Incas was casting from precious metals. Almost all now known Peruvian gold deposits were developed by the Incas. Goldsmiths and silversmiths lived in separate city blocks and were exempt from taxes. The best works of Inca jewelers perished during the conquest. According to the testimony of the Spaniards, who first saw Cusco, the city blinded with a golden sheen. Some buildings were covered with gold plates imitating masonry. The thatched roofs of the temples had golden inclusions imitating straws, so that the rays of the setting sun lit them with brilliance, giving the impression that the entire roof was made of gold. In the legendary Coricancha, the Temple of the Sun in Cusco, there was a garden with a golden fountain, around which life-sized stalks of maize made of gold, with leaves and cobs, "grew" from golden "earth" and "grazed" on golden grass twenty llamas of gold - again - life-size.
Architecture. In the field of material culture, the Incas achieved the most impressive accomplishments in architecture. Although Inca architecture is inferior to Mayan in richness of decor and Aztec in emotional impact, it has no equal in that era either in the New or Old World in terms of boldness of engineering solutions, grandiose scales of urban planning, and skillful arrangement of volumes. Inca monuments, even in ruins, are amazing in their number and size. An idea of the high level of Inca urban planning is given by the Machu Picchu fortress, built at an altitude of 3000 m in a saddle between two peaks of the Andes. Inca architecture is characterized by extraordinary plasticity. The Incas erected buildings on the processed surfaces of rocks, fitting stone blocks together without lime mortar, so that the building was perceived as a natural element of the natural environment. In the absence of rocks, bricks baked in the sun were used. Inca craftsmen were able to cut stones according to given patterns and work with huge stone blocks. The fortress (pukara) of Sascahuaman, which protected Cusco, is undoubtedly one of the greatest creations of fortification art. 460 m long, the fortress consists of three tiers of stone walls with a total height of 18 m. The walls have 46 ledges, corners and buttresses. In the cyclopean masonry of the foundation, there are stones weighing more than 30 tons with beveled edges. It took at least 300,000 stone blocks to build the fortress. All the stones are irregularly shaped, but fitted together so tightly that the walls have withstood countless earthquakes and deliberate attempts at destruction. The fortress has towers, underground passages, living quarters and an internal water supply system. The Incas began building in 1438 and finished 70 years later, in 1508. According to some estimates, 30 thousand people were involved in the construction.
THE FALL OF THE INCA EMPIRE
It is still difficult to understand how a pitiful handful of Spaniards could conquer a powerful empire, although many considerations are put forward in this regard. By that time, the Aztec empire had already been conquered by Hernan Cortes (1519-1521), but the Incas did not know about this, since they had no direct contact with the Aztecs and the Maya. The Incas first heard of white people in 1523 or 1525, when a certain Alejo Garcia, at the head of the Chiriguano Indians, attacked an empire outpost in the Gran Chaco, an arid lowland on the southeastern frontier of the empire. In 1527, Francisco Pizarro landed briefly at Tumbes on the northwestern Peruvian coast and soon sailed away, leaving two of his men behind. After that, Ecuador was devastated by an epidemic of smallpox, which was introduced by one of these Spaniards. Emperor Huayna Capac died in 1527. According to legend, he was aware that the empire was too big to rule it from one center in Cusco. Immediately after his death, a dispute for the throne broke out between two of his five hundred sons - Huascar from Cuzco, the offspring of his legal wife, and Atahualpa from Ecuador. The feud between the blood brothers erupted into a five-year devastating civil war in which Atahualpa won a decisive victory just two weeks before Pizarro's second appearance in Peru. The winner and his 40,000th army rested in the provincial center of Cajamarca in the north-west of the country, from where Atahualpa was going to go to Cusco, where the official ceremony of his elevation to the imperial rank was to take place. Pizarro arrived in Tumbes on May 13, 1532 and moved to Cajamarca with 110 foot and 67 horse soldiers. Atahualpa was aware of this from intelligence reports, on the one hand, accurate, on the other, biased in the interpretation of facts. So, the scouts assured that horses do not see in the dark, that a man and a horse are a single creature that, when falling, is no longer able to fight, that arquebuses emit only thunders, and even then only twice, that Spanish long steel swords are completely unsuitable for battle. A detachment of conquistadors on its way could be destroyed in any of the gorges of the Andes. Having occupied Cajamarca, protected by walls on three sides, the Spaniards conveyed to the emperor an invitation to come to the city to meet with them. To this day no one can explain why Atahualpa let himself be drawn into a trap. He was well aware of the strength of the foreigners, and the favorite tactic of the Incas themselves was precisely the ambush. Perhaps the emperor was driven by some special motives beyond the understanding of the Spaniards. On the evening of November 16, 1532, Atahualpa appeared on Cajamarca Square in all the splendor of imperial regalia and accompanied by a large retinue - however, unarmed, as Pizarro demanded. After a short slurred conversation between the Inca demigod and the Christian priest, the Spaniards attacked the Indians and killed almost all of them in half an hour. During the massacre of the Spaniards, only Pizarro suffered, accidentally wounded in the arm by his own soldier, when he blocked Atahualpa, whom he wanted to capture alive and unharmed. After that, with the exception of a few fierce skirmishes in different places, the Incas did not actually offer serious resistance to the conquerors until 1536. The captive Atahualpa agreed to buy his freedom by filling the room where he was kept twice with silver and once with gold. However, this did not save the emperor. The Spaniards accused him of conspiracy and "crimes against the Spanish state" and, after a short formal trial on August 29, 1533, strangled him with a garrote. All these events plunged the Incas into a state of strange apathy. The Spaniards, almost without resistance, reached Cusco along the great road and on November 15, 1533 took the city.
New Ink State. Manco II. Having made the former Inca capital of Cusco the center of Spanish rule, Pizarro decided to give the new government a semblance of legitimacy and for this he appointed Huayn Capac's grandson Manco II as the emperor's successor. The new Inca had no real power and was subjected to constant humiliation by the Spaniards, but, nurturing plans for an uprising, showed patience. In 1536, when part of the conquistadors, led by Diego Almagro, set off on an aggressive expedition to Chile, Manco, under the pretext of searching for imperial treasures, slipped out of the supervision of the Spaniards and raised an uprising. The moment for this was chosen favorable. Almagro and Pizarro, at the head of their supporters, started a dispute over the division of military spoils, which soon developed into an open war. By that time, the Indians had already felt the yoke of the new power and realized that they could only get rid of it by force. Having destroyed all the Spaniards in the vicinity of Cuzco, four armies attacked the capital on April 18, 1536. The defense of the city was led by an experienced soldier Hernando Pizarro, brother of Francisco Pizarro. He had only 130 Spanish soldiers and 2000 Indian allies at his disposal, but he showed extraordinary military skill and withstood the siege. Simultaneously, the Incas attacked Lima, founded by Pizarro in 1535 and declared the new capital of Peru. Since the city was surrounded by flat terrain, the Spaniards successfully used cavalry and quickly defeated the Indians. Pizarro sent four detachments of conquistadors to help his brother, but they could not break through to the besieged Cusco. The three-month siege of Cusco was lifted due to the fact that many soldiers left the Inca army in connection with the start of agricultural work; besides, the army of Almagro, returning from Chile, was approaching the city. Manco II and thousands of people loyal to him retreated to previously prepared positions in the Vilcabamba mountain range northeast of Cuzco. The Indians took with them the preserved mummies of the former Inca rulers. Here Manco II created the so-called. New Ink State. In order to protect the southern road from the military attacks of the Indians, Pizarro set up a military camp in Ayacucho. Meanwhile, the civil war continued between the soldiers of Pizarro and the "Chileans" of Almagro. In 1538 Almagro was captured and executed, and three years later his supporters killed Pizarro. The warring parties of the conquistadors were led by new leaders. In the Battle of Chupas near Ayacucho (1542), Inca Manco helped the "Chileans", and when they were defeated, he sheltered six Spanish fugitives in his possessions. The Spaniards taught the Indians horseback riding, firearms, and blacksmithing. Arranging ambushes on the imperial road, the Indians obtained weapons, armor, money and were able to equip a small army. During one of these raids, a copy of the "New Laws" adopted in 1544, with the help of which the king of Spain tried to limit the abuses of the conquistadors, fell into the hands of the Indians. After reviewing this document, Manco II sent one of his Spaniards, Gomez Perez, to negotiate with Viceroy Blasco Nunez Vela. Since the strife between the conquistadors continued, the viceroy was interested in a compromise. Soon after, the renegade Spaniards, who settled in the New Inca state, quarreled with Manco II, killed him and were executed.
Sayri Tupac and Titu Cusi Yupanqui. The head of the New Inca state was the son of Manco II - Sayri Tupac. During his reign, the borders of the state expanded to the upper reaches of the Amazon, and the population increased to 80 thousand people. In addition to large herds of llamas and alpacas, the Indians raised a fair number of sheep, pigs, and cattle. In 1555 Sayri Tupac launched military operations against the Spaniards. He moved his residence to the warmer climate of the Yucai Valley. Here he was poisoned by those close to him. Power was succeeded by his brother Titu Cusi Yupanqui, who resumed the war. All attempts by the conquistadors to subdue the independent Indians were in vain. In 1565, Fray Diego Rodriguez visited the Inca stronghold of Vilcabamba in order to lure the ruler out of hiding, but his mission was not successful. His reports on the morals of the royal court, the number and combat readiness of the soldiers give an idea of the strength of the New Inca state. The following year, another missionary repeated the same attempt, but during the course of negotiations, Titu Cusi fell ill and died. A monk was blamed for his death and was executed. Subsequently, the Indians killed several more Spanish ambassadors. Tupac Amaru, the last Supreme Inca. After the death of Titu Cusi, another of the sons of Manco II came to power. The Spaniards decided to put an end to the citadel in Vilcabamba, made gaps in the walls and after a fierce battle took the fortress. Tupac Amaru and his commanders, chained with collars, were taken to Cusco. Here, in 1572, on the main city square, with a confluence of a large number of people, they were beheaded.
Spanish dominance. The colonial authorities of Peru retained some of the administrative forms of the Inca empire, adapting them to their own needs. The colonial administration and the latifundists controlled the Indians through intermediaries - the community elders "kuraka" - and did not interfere in the daily life of the householders. The Spanish authorities, like the Incas, practiced mass migrations of communities and a system of labor duties, and also formed a special class of servants and artisans from the Indians. Corrupt colonial authorities and greedy latifundists created intolerable conditions for the Indians and provoked numerous uprisings that took place throughout the colonial period.
LITERATURE
Bashilov V. Ancient civilizations of Peru and Bolivia. M., 1972 Inka Garcilaso de la Vega. History of the state of the Incas. L., 1974 Zubritsky Yu. Inki Quechua. M., 1975 Culture of Peru. M., 1975 Berezkin Yu. Mochika. L., 1983 Berezkin Yu. Inki. The historical experience of the empire. L., 1991
Collier Encyclopedia. - Open society. 2000 .
The fall of the Inca Empire - a civilization that inherited the achievements of the more ancient peoples of South America.
The fall of the Inca Empire - a civilization that inherited the achievements of the more ancient peoples of South America.
National motto: Ama llulla, ama suwa, ama qilla (Don't lie, don't steal, don't be lazy) Inca Empire, Tawantinsuyu (Tawantin Suyu, Tawantinsuyu)
Chronology
Even before the rise of the Incas to their power, several other cultures flourished in the vast Andean region. The first hunters and fishermen appeared here at least 12,000 years ago, and by 3000 BC. e. fishing villages strewn all this waterless coast. In the fertile valleys at the foot of the Andes and green oases in the desert, small rural communities arose.
Thousands of years later, larger social groups of people penetrated deep into the territory. Having overcome the high mountain peaks, they began to settle on the eastern slopes of the range, using the same irrigation methods that they had developed on the coast to irrigate their fields and harvest. Settlements sprang up around the temple complexes, and artisans produced increasingly sophisticated pottery and textiles.
Archaeologists classify the products of Andean artisans according to the time and geographical period of their distribution. For this, the term “horizons” is used to identify the main stages of stylistic uniformity, violated by some features, from the point of view of aesthetics and technology.
Early colonial period: 1532 - 1572 AD
Early horizon: 1400 - 400 AD BC.
Named after the temple center at Chavin de Huantar, located in a small northern valley on the eastern slopes of the Andes, the Chavin style, strongly associated with a powerful emerging new religion, arose around 1400 BC. e. and reached its peak of development and influence by 400 BC. e.
This religion, which is believed to have been built on the leading role of an oracle, allegedly able to foresee the future, overcome diseases and make requests to the gods, gradually spread south. By 1000 B.C. she reached the area of modern Lima, and by 500 BC. - Ayacucho, located two hundred miles inland. From Chavin de Huantar, apparently, priests were sent to other communities in order to achieve the worship of deities such as this god with a rod, so named because he holds a scepter (a symbol of power) in his hands.
The Chavin people achieved significant technological progress and even made some advanced discoveries for those times. The Chavins invented the loom and experimented with various metallurgical techniques, such as welding, soldering, and making alloys of gold and silver. Their products include large metal sculptures, as well as fabrics made of dyed yarn depicting such images of the Chavin cult as a god with a grinning jaguar and other animals living in the Amazon valley.
Early Intermediate Period: 400 BC - 550 AD
Various local styles began to emerge along the southern coast of Peru. The two most characteristic features of the so-called Paracas culture, named after the Paracas peninsula, were beautiful fabrics and bottle-shaped tombs - up to 40 bodies could be placed in each room of such a crypt.
Another people, the Nazca, cultivated land in the valleys, located 200 miles south of the modern capital of Peru, Lima. By 370 B.C. the Nazca style dominated the southwest coast, leaving its most prominent mark in pottery. The Nazca are famous for their enigmatic, puzzling Nazca Lines, huge land paintings. To do this, they removed all the stones and gravel in a certain area, exposing soils that were more faded in color, after which they scattered the collected stones with gravel in heaps along its edges. Such "lines" probably had some meaning to the religion of the Nazca people.
On the northern coast of Peru around 100 B.C. a militant Moche culture arose. She extended her control over territories up to 150 miles along the coast. The Moche Indians developed a whole metallurgical complex, created monumental buildings from sun-dried raw brick (adoba), they developed their own original style, which was most reflected in vessels with realistic portraits.
Middle horizon: 550 - 900 years. AD
The chulpas burial towers, still preserved in their original form, rise on one of the mountain slopes near Lake Titicaca. The practice of burials on the territory of the empire varied greatly from one region to another, differing also on a social basis. These tombs, belonging to the local nobility, are built on stone slabs laid without mortar of the highest quality. they were built in the middle of the second millennium AD. and were badly damaged by earthquakes.
The era of big cities has arrived. On the shores of Lake Titicaca at an altitude of 12,500 feet, pyramids and stone mounds appeared, decorated with beautiful stone carvings, as can be seen in the image of the god (right), which is considered a new interpretation of the old Chavin god with a wand. The people who built all these structures settled in this region around 100 BC. and began to build around 100 AD. city of Tiahuanaco.
By 500 AD e. Tiwanakans already dominated the territory of the Southern Andes, and after five hundred years they disappeared altogether. During their hegemony, they created distant colonies, declared their lands adjacent to the shores of Lake Titicaca, and sent trade caravans of lamas along the coast.
Meanwhile, the small village of Huari, located 600 miles to the north, was gradually turning into a city. During its heyday, it had between 35,000 and 70,000 inhabitants, their homes supplied with water through an underground plumbing system.
Weaving was one of the most common occupations. The Huari people disappeared around 900 AD, but they left behind an important legacy - the concept of a centralized state and recommendations for its creation.
Late Intermediate Period (coastal): 900 - 1476 AD
Empires that collapsed one after another marked the onset of a period of internecine wars, during which small peoples, spurred on by the examples of the Huari people, tried to create their own metropolises.
Starting from the center of what once belonged to the Moche on the north coast of Peru, the Chimu tribe gradually united more than 600 miles of coastline in their new state. From a hot desert capital city of Chan Chan, well supplied with water and irrigation, with a population of 36,000, the Chimu lords ruled a strictly class-separated society in which skilled artisans were especially respected.
The Chimu Empire grew in strength, thanks to the complex irrigation system they created, as well as the conquest of neighboring cultures such as Chankei, Ika-Chinka and Sikan. The culture of Sikan can be judged by the knife for ritual ceremonies. When their culture reached its peak, the Chimú were able to decorate clothes and household items with elaborate gold patterns, creating fabrics of amazing beauty.
And so they had to enter into a struggle for power with their rivals, the Incas.
Late Intermediate Period (mountainous regions): 900 - 1476 AD
‘Huaca’ are the sacred places of the Incas.
"Kenko" - one of the largest "huaca" in the Cusco region. A semi-circular wall of smooth large stones laid in a row only emphasizes the natural monolithic limestone rock, this is the main center for religious worship in Kenko. In the cave adjacent to the wall there is an altar carved into the rock.
Descendants of a people who settled in the Cuzco Valley, located at an altitude of more than 11,000 feet above sea level, the Incas began to develop their culture only after 1200 AD, as evidenced by the jar (right). Although the capital city of Cuzco grew steadily, their power remained rather limited. Then in 1438 Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui seized the throne. Calling himself "Earth Shaker", he and his troops made a campaign across all the Andes, conquering some states, negotiating with others, trying to unite several neighboring countries into a single powerful empire. Pachacuti rebuilt Cuzco, turning the capital into a city with beautiful stone palaces and temples. His provinces were governed by numerous disciplined, well-functioning bureaucrats, who stood in defense of the interests of the state. His successor, the son of Topa Inca, who came to power in 1471, dealt such a crushing blow to the Chimu that he secured complete control over the whole of this vast region, stretching from Ecuador to the heart of Chile.
Late horizon: 1476 - 1532 AD
Having consolidated their power, the Incas achieved an unprecedented rise in culture. Armies marched along the extensive road network and trade was carried out. The art of gold forging, ceramics and weaving have reached incredible beauty and perfection. Stoneworkers created massive buildings from huge stone blocks precisely and tightly fitted to each other. The Inca nobility, represented by the statuette on the right, ruled the Andes until the death of Emperor Huayn Capac, who died of smallpox between 1525 and 1527. Soon his successor also died, leaving open the question of succession to the throne, which led to a civil war. It ended in 1532, when one of the two rival sons of Huayna Capac Atahualpa was victorious and Huáscar imprisoned.
By this time, a Spaniard named Francisco Pizarro had made his exploratory journey along the coast of the Inca empire. Having only two hundred fighters at his disposal, he took advantage of the civil strife, the smallpox epidemic and attacked the Inca troops, captured Atahualpa himself and executed him.
Early colonial period: 1532 - 1572 AD
Pizarro and his gang of adventurers approached Cusco in 1533 and were simply amazed by the unprecedented beauty of this city. The Spaniards put Atahualpa's half-brother Manco Inca on the throne to rule the Inca empire through him.
However, Manco Inca did not become a puppet in the hands of the conquerors and soon led a popular revolt. In the end, he was forced to flee Cuzco, where Pizarro himself now ruled until he was killed in 1541 by supporters of his main rival. A year later, the viceroy arrived in Lima to rule the Andean territories as Spanish provinces.
In 1545, the Spaniards captured Manco Inca, who was still emperor to several thousand Incas, who took refuge with him in the dense jungle, where they built the city of Vilcabamba. Manco Inca was killed. His son Tupac Amaru, the last Inca emperor, tried to resist the Spanish, but it was broken when the Spanish captured his main base at Vilcabamba in 1572.
Fall of the Inca Empire.
Conquistadors have always been attracted to the sound of gold. William H. Powell, photograph by the Architect of the Capitol.
Francisco Pissarro arrived in America in 1502 in search of fortune. For seven years he served in the Caribbean, participating in military campaigns against the Indians.
In 1524, Pissarro, together with Diego de Almagro and the priest Hernando de Luque, organized an expedition to the undiscovered territories of South America. But its participants fail to find anything interesting.
In 1526, a second expedition took place, during which Pissarro exchanged gold from local residents. During this expedition, three Incas were captured by the Spaniards in order to make translators out of them. This expedition turned out to be very difficult, and illness and hunger fell to their lot.
In 1527, Pissarro entered the Inca city of Tumbes. From the locals, he learns about the large amount of gold and silver decorating gardens and temples in the depths of their lands. Realizing that military forces are needed to obtain these riches, Pissarro travels to Spain and turns to Charles V for help. He talks about the countless treasures of the Incas, which can be quite easy to get. Charles V gives Pissarro the title of governor and captain of the governor of all the lands that he manages to conquer and control.
Even before the Spanish conquest began, the Incas suffered from the arrival of Europeans on their continent. Smallpox mowed down entire families among the natives who did not have immunity to it.
Around the same time, Huayna Capaca (Sapa Inca) dies. The highest state position should go to one of the sons from the main wife. The one of the sons who, in the opinion of the monarch, could better cope with the duties was chosen. In Cuzco, the capital of the Incas, the nobility proclaims the new Sapa Inca - Huascara, which means "sweet hummingbird".
The problem was that the previous Sapa Inca spent the last years of his life in Quito. As a result, most of the court lived in Quito. The city developed into a second capital, dividing the tribal chiefs into two rival factions. The army stationed in Quito gave preference to another son of Huayna Capac - Atahualpa, which means "wild turkey" in translation. He spent most of his life next to his father on the battlefield. He was a man of sharp mind. Later, the Spaniards marveled at the speed with which he mastered the game of chess. At the same time, he was merciless, as evidenced by the fear of the courtiers to incur his wrath.
Atahualpa showed loyalty to the new Sapa Inca. But he refused to come to his brother's court, perhaps fearing that Huascar saw him as a dangerous rival. In the end, Sapa Inca demanded the presence of his brother by his side at court. Refusing the invitation, Atahualpa sent ambassadors in his place with expensive gifts. Huascar, perhaps under the influence of courtiers hostile to his brother, tortured his brother's men. After killing them, he sent his army to Quito, ordering Atahualpa to be brought to Cuzco by force. Atahualpa called his loyal warriors to arms.
The armies of Cuzco at first even managed to capture a recalcitrant brother. But he managed to escape and join his own. In the battle, Atahualpa defeated those who captured him. Huascar urgently gathers a second army and sends it to his brother. The poorly trained recruits were no match for Atahualpa's veterans, and were defeated in two days' fighting.
As a result, Atahualpa captures Huascar and triumphantly enters Cuzco, after which a brutal massacre was committed against the wives, friends and advisers of the unfortunate brother.
In 1532, Pissarro and Almagro returned to Tumbes, along with 160 well-armed adventurers. On the site of the once flourishing city, they found only ruins. It suffered greatly from the epidemic, and then from the civil war. For five months, Pissarro moved along the coast, plundering imperial warehouses along the way.
As a result, Pissarro goes to the court of Atahualpa. Nine of his men, frightened by the prospect of being in mountainous terrain, turned back in Inca territory.
The Spaniards were surprised by the roads of the Incas, paved with stone slabs, with trees planted along the edges, creating a shadow, as well as canals lined with stone.
Learning about the movement of white people within his country, Atahualpa invites them to visit him. From the words of the ambassador, he understood that the Spaniards looked and were friendly. During a meeting with the ambassador, Pissarro made gifts to the monarch and talked a lot about peace.
Pissarro placed his men in an open area, in the main square of the city of Cajamarck. He sent Hernando de Soto to pay his respects to Atahualpa, so that he tried to seduce him with his offer to meet in person.
Atahualpa rebuked the Spaniards for plundering his warehouses and for neglecting some of the Indians on the coast. To which the Spaniards began to praise their martial art and offered to use their services. Atahualpa agrees to pay a visit to Pissarro in Cajamarca.
During this meeting, Hernando de Soto, wanted to scare Atahualpa and almost ran over him on his horse, stopping in close proximity to him, so that drops of the saliva of the horse fell on the clothes of the Inca. But Atahualpa did not flinch. He later ordered the execution of those courtiers who showed fear.
Pissarro, following the example of Cortes, who conquered the mighty Aztec empire by kidnapping the emperor, began to prepare his ambush.
During the night, Atahualpa sent 5,000 warriors to block the road north of Cajamarca. According to the plan he developed, as he later admitted to the Spaniards, he wanted to capture Pissarro and all his warriors alive in order to sacrifice the god of the Sun - Inti, and leave their horses for breeding.
At dawn, Pissarro posted his men in the buildings around the square. The wait was agonizing for the Spaniards, as the tenfold numerical superiority of the Incas frightened and overwhelmed. Later, as one of the eyewitnesses admitted, "many Spaniards unconsciously urinated in their pants because of the horror that bound them."
Capture of Atahualpa
Duflos, Pierre, 1742-1816, engraver.
At sunset, the imperial procession approached the square. Atahualpa was carried by 80 servants on a wooden stretcher, inlaid with gold and decorated on all sides with parrot feathers. The monarch, dressed in robes with gold threads and all in jewelry, sat holding a golden shield with the heraldic image of the Sun in his hands. There were also dancers and accompanying musicians. His retinue numbered more than 5,000 soldiers (the main forces, about 80,000 soldiers, were outside the city). They all came unarmed.
In the square they saw only one Dominican monk in a cassock with a cross in one and a Bible in the other hand. The Royal Council in Spain decided that the pagans should be given the opportunity to accept Christianity voluntarily, without bloodshed, and the conquistadors decided not to violate the letter of the law. The monk explained the meaning of the Christian faith to the ruler of the Incas, and the interpreter explained to him that he was asked to accept the religion of strangers. “You say that your God accepted death,” Atahualpa replied, “but mine still lives,” he emphasized, pointing to the sun creeping beyond the horizon.
Atahualpa picked up the prayer book that was extended to him. As far as he understood, the Spaniards valued this thing in the same way as the Indians "huaca", a talisman in which the spirit of the gods was found. But this object seemed to him a toy compared to their huge stone "huaca", which the Incas worshiped, so he threw it on the ground. According to eyewitnesses, after that the monk turned to Pissarro and said to him and his people: “You can attack them after this. I forgive you all your sins in advance."
Musician with flute. This product shows us the high art of chimu in the field of metal processing with the help of techniques. Such figurines were forged in parts, which were then soldered together. The musician holds his flute in his tattooed hands.
Pissarro gave the signal to attack. Two cannons fired a volley into the crowd of Indians. Spanish horsemen, fully armed, left the buildings and attacked the unarmed Inca warriors. They were followed by the sound of trumpets infantrymen with a battle cry - "Santiago!" (the name of the saint helping, according to the Spaniards, to defeat the enemy).
It was a brutal massacre of unarmed Indians. Pissarro with difficulty pulled Atahualpa out of her. Within a few hours, 6,000 Inca warriors perished in and around Cajamarca, but not a single Spaniard was killed. Among the few wounded was Pissarro himself, who was wounded by his own soldier when he tried to break through to the royal enemy in order to capture him alive.
Many researchers tried to understand why Atahualpa made such a fatal mistake by going out to the Spaniards with unarmed soldiers. Perhaps the leader did not even consider such a variant of the course of events, when such a small detachment would try to attack his huge army. Or he believed in the speech of the Spaniards about the world.
In captivity, Atahualpa was allowed to retain all royal privileges. All his wives and servants were near him. The nobles came to him and carried out his orders. In less than a month, he learned to speak Spanish and even write a little.
Realizing that white people were attracted by gold, he decided to pay off, offering for his freedom to fill the rooms in which he was staying with gold, and also “fill the Indian hut with silver” twice. Instead of releasing Atahualpa, he signed his death warrant with such a proposal. By ordering to break all the gold in Cuzco, and delivering it to the Spaniards, he only ignited their passion for the precious metal. At the same time, fearing that his brother would be able to offer even more gold for his freedom, he ordered his execution. The Incas did not perceive gold and silver as something valuable. For them, it was just beautiful metal. They called gold "sweat of the sun" and silver "tears of the moon". For them, fabrics were valuable, as it took a lot of time to make them.
Knife for ritual ceremonies. Ritual knife Tumi with a gold handle and a silver blade and decorated with turquoise. The god Naimlap is depicted with a semicircular headdress and a pair of wings.
The Spaniards began to suspect that Atahualpa was plotting against them. This gave rise to panic fear in their ranks. Pissarro for a long time resisted the mood of his compatriots. But in the end, the panic broke his resolute attitude.
Atahualpa began to realize the inevitability of his death. His religion guaranteed him eternal life if the rite was properly performed.
At a meeting of the council, headed by Pissarro himself, it was decided to burn Atahualpa. When the Spaniards informed the leader of their decision, he burst into tears. The destruction of the body meant the deprivation of immortality.
The monk, before his death, once again tried to convert the pagan to the Christian faith. Realizing that if he converted to Christianity, he would not be burned, but strangled with a garrote (a hoop with a screw to slowly strangle the victim), he agreed to undergo an initiation ceremony, assuming that the body would be handed over to the people for mummification. But the Spaniards deceived him here too. After the chief was strangled, they burned his clothes and part of his body at the stake. The rest they buried in the ground.
Pissarro understood what benefits a local ruler under Spanish control promised him. He opted for Huayna Capac's son, Manco Inca. When the Spaniards arrived in Cuzco, they were greeted as well-wishers who restored the legitimate ruling branch of the Incas, although all the mummies were safely hidden before their appearance.
The conquistadors were not distinguished by generosity and in every possible way humiliated Manco, showing a disregard for the customs of the Incas. The worst happened when Pissarro traveled to the ocean coast to establish a new capital, Limo. He left his brothers Gonzalo and Juan in charge. Gonzalo treated Manco with undisguised contempt. Having kidnapped his beloved wife, he abused her.
The atrocities perpetrated by the Spaniards led to the fact that Manco flatly refused to cooperate and attempted to leave Cuzco. The Spaniards returned him to the capital in chains. In conclusion, they were subjected to various kinds of humiliation.
As a result, Manco persuades one of Francisco's brothers, Hernando, who had recently arrived in Cusco from Spain, to release him temporarily from prison so that he could pray in the sanctuary, for which he promised to give a golden statue depicting his father. As soon as Manco got out of Cuzco, he called on his people to revolt. The matter ended with the siege of Cuzco, which lasted almost a whole year. During this siege, there were traitors among the Indians both in Cuzco and beyond, who secretly carried food to the invaders. Among them were even relatives of Manco himself, who feared reprisal for their former support for the Europeans by the new ruler. The hopelessness of the siege became clear when reinforcements arrived from Spain. Some supporters of Manco even broke away from him, realizing that a good moment had been lost.
After the failure of the siege of Cuzco, Manco took 20,000 of his compatriots with him into the dense jungle. There they built the new city of Vilcabamba in a short time. It covered an area of about two square miles and consisted of about three hundred houses and sixty monumental structures. There were convenient roads and canals.
From this city, the Incas sometimes raided the conquerors, attacking outposts. In 1572, the Spaniards decided to do away with this last stronghold, as evidence of the former power of the natives. When they reached Vilcabamba, they found only deserted ruins on the site of the city. The defenders burned it before leaving the city. The Spaniards continued the pursuit, penetrating further and further into the jungle. As a result, they captured the last leader of the Incas, Tupac Amaru. He was brought to Cusco and beheaded in the town square. Thus ended the dynasty of the Inca rulers.
The result of the fifty-year stay of the Spaniards was the reduction of the indigenous population - by three quarters. Many died from diseases brought from the Old World, and many from hard labor.
Huge amounts of gold and silver were exported to Spain. Art objects were usually melted down before export. The most beautiful products were delivered to the court of Charles V, then they were put on public display in Seville. When Charles began to lack funds for military campaigns, these outstanding works of Inca art were ordered to be melted down.
Literature:
A. Varkin, L. Zdanovich, "Secrets of Disappeared Civilizations", M. 2000.
The Incas: Lords of Gold and Heirs of Glory, translated from English by L. Kanevsky, M., Terra, 1997.
Origin and history of the Inca tribe
During the Late Intermediate Period (1000-1483), small tribes - the forerunners of the Incas - lived in the Cuzco region. The Incas were just one of many local population groups. Although information about the chronology and development of the Cusco region is incomplete, some of the main stages of Peruvian archeology can be recognized in the styles of local ceramics. Evidence of Huari influence is found in the very south of the valley, at Piquilacta, about 30 kilometers south of Cuzco. However, there are no traces of Huari architecture or ceramics in the area of Cusco itself. It is assumed that in the middle horizon it was not permanently inhabited. The basic style of pottery prevalent in the pre-Inca period is generally referred to as sprat, and variations of this style are found everywhere between San Pedro de Cacha and Machu Picchu. The local origin of the Incas is proved by the fact that the sprat style is akin to the characteristic style of the Inca period of their empire.
Partially preserved structures have been found on the hills - settlements of the Late Intermediate Period, in which some attempt to adhere to the general plan is visible. This period is characterized by round and square buildings, which bear little resemblance to the houses of Pikilakta. The Spanish conquerors heard from the Incas that before they came to dominate, the peoples of the Sierras (mountains) were very diverse and disorganized and settled in hard-to-reach places because they were constantly at war with each other.
Written reports about the early period of Inca rule - approximately between 1200 and 1438. - are very unreliable historical evidence. This period covers the time from the founding of the Inca dynasty until 1438, when the Inca Empire was already the most significant state in the Andes.
Origin myths say that the Incas originally consisted of three original tribal groups united under the leadership of Manco Capac, the legendary founder of the dynasty. These myths tell how the Incas were looking for fertile land and found it in the Cusco Valley and how they settled on this land.
On their arrival in Cusco, the Incas encountered resistance and were forced to settle nearby until they reclaimed the site where they later built the famed Sun Temple, Coricancha. The power of Manco Capac extended only to the natives of the Cusco area. The second and third Inca leaders after him, Sinchi Roca and Lloque Yupanqui, had a reputation for peace, while the fourth, Maita Capac, aroused enmity, and as a result an uprising arose among the inhabitants of Cuzco itself.
The fifth, sixth, and seventh Inca chiefs captured small territories in the surrounding areas. During this early period, neither the Incas nor their neighbors made organized conquests, but periodically raided the villages of their neighbors when there was a danger that their inhabitants would start to assert their rights, or when they apparently had something to plunder.
Inca Viracocha, eighth ruler of the Inca dynasty, was the first to take the title Sapa Inca(The only, or Supreme Inca). He put an end to local conquests by forming a relatively small but powerful state. At the end of his reign, a situation was created that was critical for the Incas, since the Cuzco region was threatened from three sides. In the south, strong opponents were tribes stakes And lupaka, but they were at enmity with each other, and the Incas could focus their attention on the west and northwest, where the tribes lived Quechua And chunk. The Incas were on friendly terms with the Quechua, a powerful people, a kind of buffer between the Incas and the formidable tribe of the Chanca. It was growing stronger and had already captured the province of Andahuaillas, which was formerly occupied by the Quechua, settling in its territory. Anticipating the inevitable clash in the future with the powerful Chunks, Inca Viracocha strengthened the position of his people by taking the daughter of a tribal leader as his wife. anta, nearest neighbors to the northwest, and by making an alliance with the Quechua.
When the Chunk reached the Incas, Viracocha was already an old man, and among the people there was a strong belief in the invincibility of the Chunk. Viracocha and his heir, Inca Urcon, apparently simply fled Cuzco with their retinue. However, the situation was saved by another group of Inca nobles and military leaders, led by Yupanqui, another son of Inca Viracocha, who called as many warriors under his banner as he could and successfully defended Cuzco. Then the Chanca were defeated in a series of battles, and it turned out that the Incas won the struggle for power and began to reign supreme in the mountains. After these events, Viracocha was out of work, and Yupanqui was proclaimed Pachacuti. He retained power and was crowned as the ruler of the Incas.
The late Inca period, or period of empire, began with the reign of Inca Pachacuti Yupanqui in 1438 and ended with the Spanish conquest in 1532. The history of the Incas of this period is much more reliable than the previous one. There is quite reliable information about the reign of the Inca rulers and about the military expansion of the empire, which spread over the entire territory of the Andes (see Fig. 3).
Rice. 3. The territory of the Inca Empire, indicating the areas annexed as a result of the wars of the late Inca period (according to J. Rove)
Inca Pachacuti consolidated previous conquests and new alliances, allocating new subjects to lands near Cuzco and giving them the opportunity to participate in the newly created administrative structure of Cuzco with the right to call themselves Incas. He then proceeded to develop reforms that would integrate the new provinces into the growing state.
The ruler of the Incas began a military campaign to annex the lands of the tribe urubamba, located to the west of the territories of Quechua and Chanca, and the southern lands up to Lake Titicaca. Having achieved military success, but realizing the urgent need to create a new effective system of government, Inca Pachacuti considered it beneficial to stay permanently in the capital, transferring command of the troops to his brother Capac Yupanqui, who was ordered to move north and conquer territories within clearly defined and limited limits - apparently up to Huanuco himself. Complications arose after a successful campaign, when the Chunk Indians, whom Inca Pachacuti had taken into his army, deserted near Huanuco. Chasing the Chanca, Capac Yupanqui went beyond the strictly defined borders, lost the fugitives, and then - probably hoping to return the favor of the Inca Pachacuti - attacked and captured Cajamarca, the most powerful possession in the northern mountains. Leaving a small garrison there, Capac Yupanqui returned to Cuzco and was executed here - for exceeding his authority and for allowing the chanca to leave.
The cruel punishment that befell Capac Yupanqui will become clearer if you look at the situation from the point of view of Inca Pachacuti. Cajamarca was an important province and allied with the coastal state of Chimu, growing, powerful and extremely well organized - it represented the only obstacle to the expansion of the Incas to the north. At that time, Pachacuti was not ready to fight the entire Chimu army and therefore feared their possible attack on the insignificant garrison left in the prematurely captured Cajamarca. In addition, Capac Yupanqui, due to his apparent success, could arouse the jealousy of Inca Pachacuti.
Inca Pachacuti had to first march personally to put down the rebellion in the south, in the basin of Lake Titicaca, before he could again turn his attention to the north. By his will, Inca Topa, his son and heir, led an army and led it on a campaign through the highlands as far as Quito. Then, having reached the coast of what is now Ecuador, the Inca Topa turned his army southward, approaching the country of the Chimu from where they least expected him. He successfully conquered the entire northern and central coast to the very valley of Lurin. Shortly after this great campaign, the Inca Topa undertook another to subdue the valleys of the south coast from Nazca to Mala. While the Inca Topa expanded the empire, the Inca Pachacuti remained in Cuzco, establishing an administrative structure and rebuilding Cuzco into a capital appropriate to the imperial scale.
Inca Topa became ruler around 1471. He had just started his campaign in the eastern forests when stakes And lupaka raised an uprising in the south - a serious threat that had to be dealt with as quickly as possible. After the successful suppression of the rebellion, the Inca occupied the territory of Bolivia and Chile, penetrating as far south as the Maule River, which since then has remained the southern border of the empire.
After the completion of the eastern expedition, Inca Topa, like his father, settled in Cuzco in earnest, busily engaged in the formation of an empire, reshaping and making more flexible administrative policies to suit the many new tribes and provinces now united under one rule. Perhaps it was this Inca who expanded the Inca conceptual system with some Chimu representations, since it was he who convinced many noble people and Chimu artisans to move to live in Cuzco.
Inca Topa died in 1493 and was succeeded by his son Huayna Capac. This Inca crushed several uprisings and annexed new lands to the empire chachapoyas And moyobamba, and the area north of Quito, where he set up boundary markers along the Ancamayo River (today's border between Ecuador and Colombia). His merit was also the full integration of the territory of Ecuador into the empire and the construction of new cities like Tomebamba, where he himself lived for a long time. Before his death in this city - he died suddenly of the plague - Huayna Capac learned that some strange bearded people were seen on the coast (this was Pizarro's first expedition).
During the five years left of the Inca Empire, Huayna Capac's two sons, Atahualpa and Huáscar, fought a civil war for power. The war was won by Atahualpa, and he was just preparing for his official coronation when the Spaniards reappeared in 1532 (see chapter 10).
From the book of the Eucharist author Kern CyprianSECTION ONE The Origin and History of the Liturgy.
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