3 regions of Oceania. Geography of Oceania

Geographical location of Oceania, countries and dependent territories of Oceania

Geology and climate of Oceania, soils and hydrology of Oceania, economy and culture of Oceania, Melanesia, Micronesia, New Zealand and Polynesia

Section 1. Main characteristics of Oceania.

Section 2. Physiographic countries of Oceania.

Oceania- This part of the world; a geographical, often geopolitical, region of the world consisting primarily of hundreds of small islands and atolls in the central and western Pacific Ocean.

Main characteristics of Oceania

Oceania is the world's largest collection of islands, located in the western and central Pacific Ocean, between the subtropical latitudes of the Northern and temperate Southern hemispheres. When dividing the entire landmass into parts of the world, Oceania is usually united with Australia into a single part of the world, Australia and Oceania, although sometimes it is separated into an independent part of the world.

Oceania is a large number of islands (about ten thousand) located in the center and south - west of the Pacific Ocean. Oceania is located between the Malay Archipelago and Australia. Divided into Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and sometimes New Zealand. The total area of the islands is about 1.25 million square kilometers. These islands are inhabited by approximately 18 million people.

Oceania is based on New Zealand(South and North Islands), and New Guinea. These islands make up 4/5 of the entire territory. The islands of western Micronesia and Melanesia are large Mountain chain, rising from the ocean floor, the peaks are above the water. These islands are craters of underwater volcanoes: Samoa, Cook, Easter, Hawaiian, Marquesas.

In Hawaii: Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa, if counted from the ocean floor, reach nine thousand meters. But mostly Micronesia and Polynesia are islands of animal origin (atolls) of coral. They grew from underwater volcanic craters.

Oceania is a unique natural wonder, each island is its own world, with its own charms. The flora is very diverse. Some islands have vegetation of all climate zones. The characteristic tree of Oceania is the coconut palm. Its wood is used for construction, and ropes are woven from palm fibers. Coconut oil is used to make soap and margarine.

The total area of the islands is 1.26 million km² (together with Australia 8.52 million km²), the population is about 10.7 million people. (together with Australia 32.6 million people). Geographically, Oceania is divided into Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia; New Zealand is sometimes singled out.

IN Pacific Ocean, in its central and western parts there is the largest globe a cluster of islands with a total area of about 1.26 million km2, most of which are grouped into archipelagos. All the islands are united under the name Oceania. The development of Oceania took place under conditions of long-term isolation from the mainland, which determines the deep originality of its landscapes. It is manifested both in the geological structure and relief, and in high endemism and poverty of the species composition of flora and fauna, especially in the most remote eastern islands. These reasons provide the basis for identifying Oceania as a special part of the world with the dominance of oceanic landscapes, which has no analogues on the continents. Geological structure The islands of Oceania are in direct connection with the structure of the Pacific Ocean floor. Almost all the islands are of coral or volcanic origin. In central Oceania (Polynesia and eastern Micronesia), they represent the peaks of submarine volcanoes crowning submarine ridges, erected by powerful outpourings of basaltic lavas at the end of the Neogene and in the Quaternary period along the fault lines of the ancient oceanic platform of the Pacific Ocean floor. The formation of coral islands occurred in the Quaternary period in connection with ecstatic fluctuations in the level of the Pacific Ocean and deflections of sections of its bottom. The islands, concentrated on the western edge of Oceania, lie in zones of geosynclinal structures framing the central platform, and are (according to V.V. Belousov) the tops of grandiose underwater ridges, the leading structures of geosynclinal zones. On the outer (oceanic) side, these islands are framed by deep-sea depressions, extremely clearly expressed in the topography of the ocean floor due to the extremely slow processes of demolition and accumulation of sediments. Mountain-building movements in the peripheral Pacific geosynclines actively manifested themselves in the Mesozoic and Alpine cycles, but have not ended at the present time, as evidenced by frequent and strong earthquakes and active volcanism on the islands. The islands of western Oceania are the largest and most mountainous. Among them, New Zealand and New Guinea stand out for their size and high mountainous terrain, which account for 80% of the land area of Oceania. The islands are scattered at latitudes ranging from subtropical in the northern hemisphere to temperate in the southern (lie between 28°25"N and 52°30"S and 130°E and 105°20"W) , but most of them are concentrated in subequatorial zones, which determines the main features of temperature variations and moisture regimes.The influence of land affects the climate of the islands closest to Australia and Southeast Asia.

The rest are characterized by small daily and seasonal amplitudes of high temperatures, constantly high relative air humidity and large amounts of precipitation, due to the exclusive dominance of marine air masses. The average temperatures of the warmest months (August in the northern hemisphere, February in the southern) vary from 25°C in the north to 16°C in the south, the coldest months (February and August) from 16°C to 5°C. Sharp fluctuations in seasonal and daily temperatures are characteristic only of mountainous islands, where high-altitude climatic zones appear. In New Zealand and New Guinea, high-altitude climatic zones end in a nival climate. Average annual precipitation varies enormously depending on orography. Wet winds (mainly trade winds from both hemispheres) sweep freely over the low, small islands, but rise along the windward slopes of the high mountainous islands, which receive heavy orographic rain (in some places up to 9000 mm or more). This creates sharp climatic and landscape contrasts on slopes of different exposures. Evergreen moist forests grow on the windward slopes, a dense network of deep rivers develops, erosion and chemical weathering of rocks actively occur, and podzolization of lateritic soils occurs. The leeward slopes are dominated by mixed (deciduous-evergreen) forests, xerophytic woodlands and peculiar oceanic savannas with hard grasses, pandanus, and groves of coconut palms. The low islands, where mainly cyclonic precipitation from tropical fronts falls, are covered with oceanic savannas, forests of coconut palms and pandanus trees, mangroves (mainly on coral islands) and even semi-desert vegetation; outcrops of dense, unweathered basalts are completely bare. The large islands of Oceania were centers of flora formation. At the same time, many plant species migrated to the islands from Australia, and mainly from the Malay Archipelago and Southeast Asia, as a result of which almost all of Oceania is included in the Malesian floristic subregion of the Paleotropics, which is extremely poor in species composition and highly endemic. The question of the distribution of organisms in Oceania remains unresolved. It is generally believed that migration took place over temporary land bridges. On the other hand, one cannot underestimate the role of winds, currents, birds and, finally, people, who in ancient times made long voyages between archipelagos. The greatest endemism of the flora is found in New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, which are divided into special subregions. Among the plants of Oceania, there are many useful for humans: coconut and sago palms, bananas, rubber plants, mangoes, melon and breadfruit trees.

Many tropical crops are grown on the islands: pineapples, bananas, sugar cane, etc. Ocean spaces present great difficulties for the settlement of animals, therefore the composition of the fauna in Oceania is very specific, characterized by great depletion, primarily due to the almost complete absence of mammals. For this reason, most of Oceania is allocated to the Polynesian zoogeographic region. On the islands there are a lot of well-flying birds (swifts, pigeons, etc.) and there are some small animals (mainly bats, dogs and foxes, lizards), as well as insects that were accidentally carried on the trunks of floating trees. The imported animals and birds caused great harm to the fauna of Oceania, many of which occupied empty ecological niches, found a favorable environment for reproduction, and sometimes completely destroyed not only local animals, but also plant cover. Regional landscape differences allow us to distinguish four physical-geographical countries in Oceania: Melanesia, Micronesia, New Zealand and Polynesia.

The islands of Oceania are washed by numerous Pacific seas (Coral Sea, Tasman Sea, Fiji Sea, Koro Sea, Solomon Sea, New Guinea Sea, Philippine Sea) and Indian Oceans(Arafura Sea).

From a geological point of view, Oceania is not a continent: only Australia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, New Guinea and Tasmania are of continental origin, having formed on the site of the hypothetical continent of Gondwana. In the past, these islands were a single landmass, but as a result of rising sea levels, a significant part of the surface was under water. The relief of these islands is mountainous and highly dissected. For example, highest mountains Oceania, including Mount Jaya (5029 m), are located on the island of New Guinea.

Most of the islands of Oceania are of volcanic origin: some of them are the tops of large underwater volcanoes, some of which still exhibit high volcanic activity (for example, the Hawaiian Islands).

Other islands are of coral origin, being atolls that were formed as a result of the formation of coral structures around submerged volcanoes (for example, the Gilbert Islands, Tuamotu). A distinctive feature of such islands are large lagoons, which are surrounded by numerous islets, or motu, the average height of which does not exceed three meters. In Oceania, there is an atoll with the largest lagoon in the world - Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands archipelago. Although its land area is only 16.32 km² (or 6.3 sq. miles), its lagoon area is 2,174 km² (or 839.3 sq. miles). The largest atoll in terms of land area is Christmas Island (or Kiritimati) in the Line archipelago (or Central Polynesian Sporades) - 322 km². However, among atolls there is also a special type - a raised (or elevated) atoll, which is a limestone plateau up to 50-60 m high above sea level. This type of island does not have a lagoon or there are traces of its past existence. Examples of such atolls are Nauru, Niue, and Banaba.

The relief and geological structure of the Pacific Ocean floor in the Oceania region has a complex structure. From the Alaska Peninsula (part of North America) to New Zealand there are a large number of basins of marginal seas, deep ocean trenches (Tonga, Kermadec, Bougainville), which form a geosynclinal belt characterized by active volcanism, seismicity and contrasting topography.

Most of the islands of Oceania have no mineral resources, only the largest of them are being developed: nickel (New Caledonia), oil and gas (New Guinea island, New Zealand), copper (Bougainville island in Papua New Guinea), gold (New Guinea , Fiji), phosphates (on most islands the deposits are almost or already developed, for example, in Nauru, on the islands of Banaba, Makatea). In the past, many islands in the region were heavily mined for guano, the decomposed droppings of seabirds, which were used as nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer. On the ocean floor of the exclusive economic zone of a number of countries there are large accumulations of iron-manganese nodules, as well as cobalt, but at the moment no development is being carried out due to economic inexpediency.

Oceania is located within several climatic zones: equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate. Most of the islands have a tropical climate. Subequatorial climate prevails on the islands near Australia and Asia, as well as east of the 180th meridian in the equator zone, equatorial - west of the 180th meridian, subtropical - north and south of the tropics, temperate - on most of the South Island in New Zealand.

The climate of the islands of Oceania is determined mainly by trade winds, so most of them receive heavy rainfall. Average annual rainfall ranges from 1,500 to 4,000 mm, although some islands (particularly due to topography and downwind areas) may have drier or wetter climates. Oceania is home to one of the wettest places on the planet: on the eastern slope of Mount Waialeale on the island of Kauai, up to 11,430 mm of precipitation falls annually (the absolute maximum was reached in 1982: then 16,916 mm fell). Near the tropics the average temperature is about 23 °C, near the equator - 27 °C, with little difference between the hottest and coldest months.

The climate of the Oceanian islands is also greatly influenced by such anomalies as the El Niño and La Niña currents. During El Niño, the intertropical convergence zone moves north toward the equator; during La Niña, it moves south away from the equator. In the latter case, the islands experience severe drought, while in the former, heavy rains occur.

Most of the islands of Oceania are subject to the destructive effects of natural disasters: volcanic eruptions (Hawaiian Islands, New Hebrides), earthquakes, tsunamis, cyclones accompanied by typhoons and heavy rains, droughts. Many of them lead to significant material and human losses. For example, the tsunami in Papua New Guinea in July 1999 killed 2,200 people.

On South Island In New Zealand and on the island of New Guinea, there are glaciers high in the mountains, but due to the process of global warming, their area is gradually decreasing.

Due to various climatic conditions Oceania's soils are very diverse. The soils of the atolls are highly alkaline, of coral origin, and very poor. They are usually porous, which is why they retain moisture very poorly, and also contain very little organic and mineral substances with the exception of calcium, sodium and magnesium. The soils of volcanic islands are usually of volcanic origin and are characterized by high fertility. On large mountainous islands there are red-yellow, mountain lateritic, mountain-meadow, yellow-brown soils, yellow soils, and red soils.

Large rivers are found only on the South and North Islands of New Zealand, as well as on the island of New Guinea, which contains the largest rivers in Oceania, the Sepik (1126 km) and Fly (1050 km). The largest river in New Zealand is the Waikato (425 km). The rivers are fed primarily by rain, although in New Zealand and New Guinea the rivers are also fed by water from melting glaciers and snow. On atolls there are no rivers at all due to the high porosity of the soil. Instead, rainwater percolates through the soil to form a lens of slightly brackish water that can be reached by digging a well. For more large islands(usually of volcanic origin) there are small streams of water that flow towards the ocean.

The largest number of lakes, including thermal ones, are located in New Zealand, where there are also geysers. On other islands of Oceania, lakes are a rarity.

Oceania is included in the Paleotropical region of vegetation, with three subregions distinguished: Melanesian-Micronesian, Hawaiian and New Zealand. Among the most widespread plants in Oceania are the coconut palm and the breadfruit tree, which play an important role in life local residents: the fruits are used for food, the wood is a source of heat, a building material, and copra is produced from the oily endosperm of coconut palm nuts, which forms the basis of exports for the countries of this region. A large number of epiphytes (ferns, orchids) also grow on the islands. The largest number of endemics (both flora and fauna) are recorded in New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, while from west to east there is a decrease in the number of species, genera and families of plants.

The fauna of Oceania belongs to the Polynesian faunal region with a subregion of the Hawaiian Islands. The fauna of New Zealand is allocated to an independent region, New Guinea - to the Papuan subregion of the Australian region. New Zealand and New Guinea are the most diverse. On the small islands of Oceania, primarily atolls, mammals are almost never found: many of them are inhabited only by the small rat. But the local avifauna is very rich. Most atolls have bird colonies where seabirds nest. Of the fauna of New Zealand, the most famous are the kiwi birds, which have become the national symbol of the country. Other endemics of the country are kea (Latin: Nestor notabilis, or nestor), kakapo (Latin: Strigops habroptilus, or owl parrot), takahe (Latin: Notoronis hochstelteri, or wingless plume). All the islands of Oceania are home to a large number of lizards, snakes and insects.

During the European colonization of the islands, alien species of plants and animals were introduced to many of them, which negatively affected the local flora and fauna.

The region contains a large number of protected areas, many of which occupy large areas. For example, the Phoenix Islands in the Republic of Kiribati have been the world's largest marine reserve since January 28, 2008 (area 410,500 km²).

The indigenous inhabitants of Oceania are Polynesians, Micronesians, Melanesians and Papuans.

Polynesians living in the countries of Polynesia have a mixed racial type: in their appearance, features of the Caucasian and Mongoloid races are visible, and to a lesser extent - Australoid. The largest peoples of Polynesia are Hawaiians, Samoans, Tahitians, Tongans, Maoris, Marquesans, Rapanui and others. Native languages belong to the Polynesian subgroup of the Austronesian family of languages: Hawaiian, Samoan, Tahitian, Tongan, Maori, Marquesan, Rapanui and others. Characteristic features of Polynesian languages are a small number of sounds, especially consonants, and an abundance of vowels.

Micronesians live in the countries of Micronesia. The largest peoples are Carolinians, Kiribatis, Marshallese, Nauru, Chamorros and others. The native languages belong to the Micronesian group of the Austronesian family of languages: Kiribati, Carolinian, Kusaie, Marshallese, Nauruan and others. The Palauan and Chamorro languages belong to the West Malayo-Polynesian languages, and Yapese forms a separate branch of the Oceanian languages, which also includes the Micronesian languages.

Melanesians live in the countries of Melanesia. Racial type - Australoid, with a small Mongoloid element, close to the Papuans of New Guinea. Melanesians speak Melanesian languages, but their languages, unlike Micronesian and Polynesian, do not form a separate genetic group, and the linguistic fragmentation is very great, so that people from neighboring villages may not understand each other.

Papuans inhabit the island of New Guinea and some areas of Indonesia. By anthropological type they are close to the Melanesians, but differ from them in language. Not all Papuan languages are related to each other. The national language of the Papuans in Papua New Guinea is the English-based Tok Pisin creole language. According to various sources of peoples and languages, the Papuans number from 300 to 800. However, there are difficulties in establishing the difference between an individual language and a dialect.

Many languages of Oceania are on the verge of extinction. In everyday life they are increasingly being replaced by English and French.

The situation of the indigenous population in the countries of Oceania is different. If, for example, in the Hawaiian Islands their share is very low, then in New Zealand Maori make up up to 15% of the country's population. The share of Polynesians in the North Mariana Islands located in Micronesia is about 21.3%. In Papua New Guinea, the majority of the population is made up of numerous Papuan peoples, although there is also a high proportion of people from other islands in the region.

In New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, the majority of the population is European, whose share is also high in New Caledonia (34%) and in French Polynesia(12 %). On the Fiji Islands, 38.2% of the population is represented by Indo-Fijians, descendants of Indian contract workers brought to the islands by the British in the 19th century.

Recently, the proportion of immigrants from Asia (mainly Chinese and Filipinos) has been increasing in the countries of Oceania. For example, in the Northern Mariana Islands, the share of Filipinos is 26.2%, and the Chinese are 22.1%.

The population of Oceania mainly professes Christianity, adhering to either the Protestant or Catholic branches.

The island of New Guinea and the nearby islands of Melanesia were supposedly settled by people from Southeast Asia who arrived by canoe approximately 30-50 thousand years ago. About 2-4 thousand years ago, most of Micronesia and Polynesia were inhabited. The colonization process ended around 1200 AD. By the beginning of the 16th century, the peoples of Oceania were experiencing a period of decomposition of the primitive communal system and the formation of an early class society. Crafts, agriculture, and navigation actively developed.

In the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries, the period of study of Oceania by Europeans continued, who gradually began to populate the islands. However, the process of European colonization proceeded very slowly, since the region did not arouse much interest among foreigners due to the lack natural resources, and had a negative impact on the local population: many diseases were introduced that had never existed in Oceania, and this led to epidemics, as a result of which a significant part of the natives died. At the same time, there was a Christianization of the inhabitants, who worshiped numerous deities and spirits.

IN XVIII-XIX centuries the division of the islands of Oceania took place between the colonial powers, first of all, British Empire, Spain and France (later joined by the USA and the German Empire). Of particular interest to Europeans was the possibility of creating plantations on the islands (coconut palms for the production of copra, sugar cane), as well as the slave trade (the so-called “blackbird hunt,” which involved recruiting islanders to work on plantations).

New Zealand became a dominion in 1907, but it did not formally become a fully independent state until 1947. After the First World War, the first political organizations began to emerge (“May” in Western Samoa, “Fiji Youth” in Fiji), which fought for the independence of the colonies. During World War II, Oceania was one of the theaters of war where many battles took place (mainly between Japanese and American forces).

After the war, there were some economic improvements in the region, but in most colonies it was lopsided (the predominance of the plantation economy and the almost complete absence of industry). Since the 1960s, the process of decolonization began: Western Samoa gained independence in 1962, West Irian in 1963, and Nauru in 1968. Subsequently, most of the colonies became independent.

After gaining independence, most countries in Oceania still have serious economic, political and social problems, which they are trying to solve with the help of the world community (including the UN) and through regional cooperation. Despite the process of decolonization in the 20th century, some islands in the region still remain dependent to one degree or another: New Caledonia, French Polynesia and Wallis and Futuna from France, the Pitcairn Islands from Great Britain, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau from New Zealand, a number islands (all minor outer islands except Navassa Island) from the United States.

Most countries in Oceania have a very weak economy, which is due to several reasons: limited natural resources, remoteness from world markets for products, and a shortage of highly qualified specialists. Many states depend on financial assistance from other countries.

The basis of the economy of most countries in Oceania is agriculture (copra and palm oil production) and fishing. Among the most important agricultural crops are the coconut palm, bananas, and breadfruit. Possessing huge exclusive economic zones and not having a large fishing fleet, the governments of the countries of Oceania issue licenses for the right to catch fish to ships of other countries (mainly Japan, Taiwan, the USA), which significantly replenishes the state budget. The mining industry is most developed in Papua New Guinea, Nauru, New Caledonia, and New Zealand.

A significant part of the population is employed in the public sector. Recently, measures have been taken to develop the tourism sector of the economy.

The art of Oceania has developed a distinctive style that makes the local culture unique.

IN fine arts Among the Polynesians, the main place belongs to wood carving and sculpture. Maori carving reached high level, they decorated boats, details of houses, carved statues of gods and ancestors, such a statue stands in every village. The main motif of the ornament is a spiral. Stone moai statues were created on Easter Island and the Marquesas Islands. Of the crafts, the most important was the construction of boats, as they made it possible to engage in fishing and travel over long distances (in connection with this, astronomy developed among the Polynesians). Tattooing is widespread among Polynesians. The clothing used was tapa, which was made from the bark of trees of the mulberry family. Myths, legends, fairy tales, singing and dancing were developed in Polynesia. Writing was probably only on Easter Island (rongo-rongo); on other islands folklore was transmitted orally.

Singing and dancing are popular forms of art among Micronesians. Each tribe has its own myths. In the life of the islanders, the main place was occupied by ships - boats. There were different types of boats: dibenil - a sailing boat, valab - a large rowing boat. Megaliths are found on the Yap Islands. Of particular interest is Nan Madol, known as the “Venice of Micronesia”. This the whole city on the water, in the lagoon on the island of Ponape. Stone structures were built on artificial islands.

Wood carving reached a special peak among the Melanesians. Unlike the Polynesians, the Melanesians were not so tied to the sea, they were more land dwellers. The main musical instrument is the drum, or tom-tom. The Papuans have widespread folklore, songs, dances, and myths. The songs and dances are very simple. The singing is called mun, the melody varies very little. The cult of ancestors and skulls is important. Papuans make korvars - images of ancestors. Wood carving is well developed.

Physiographic countries of Oceania

Regional landscape differences allow us to distinguish four physical-geographical countries in Oceania: Melanesia, Micronesia, New Zealand and Polynesia.

Melanesia

Melanesia includes New Guinea, the archipelagos of Bismarck, Louisaida, Solomon Islands, Santa Cruz, New Hebrides, New Caledonia, Fiji and a number of small islands. The islands of Melonesia lie in the alpine geosynclinal zone and were created by mountain-building processes of the Neogene and early Quaternary periods. They are composed of crystalline intrusions and folded sedimentary deposits. The complex of crystalline rocks contains ore minerals: nickel, gold, iron ores, chromites. Oil-bearing basins are confined to sedimentary formations.

Volcanic activity continues to this day. Frequent and strong earthquakes occur.

The relief of the islands is predominantly mountainous. The islands received their modern shape in the Quaternary period; previously they were connected with each other, with Australia, and with the Malay Archipelago by land bridges along which the migration of flora and fauna took place. In this regard, plant and animal world include many Australo-Malayan species.

Mountains rise to 2000 m and higher in New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and the Bismarck Archipelago, which are collectively called Northern Melanesia. The climate here is constantly hot and very humid; most of the islands are covered with evergreen rainforests.

The climate of Southern Melanesia is hot, seasonally humid, hylean forests cover only the windward slopes of the mountains, and savannas appear on the dry, leeward slopes.

The largest island of Melanesia and Oceania is New Guinea with an area of 829,300 km2. This island is located entirely in equatorial latitudes. The island's flora is rich in species and includes 6,872 plant species, of which 85% are endemic. The Sredinny Ridge stretches across the entire island, the height of which increases to the west up to Jaya Peak (5029 m). A huge amount of moisture condenses on its slopes, brought in in winter by the southeastern trade winds, and in summer by the northwestern monsoon. On high mountain peaks, precipitation falls in solid form. The snow line lies at an altitude of 4420 m. There are small glaciers on the mountain tops.

Below the eternal snow and rocky placers there are tall grass meadows with rhododendron bushes, and even lower there is a belt of mountain gils, which at an altitude of 900 m give way to the wilds of typical gils.

To the south of the Sredinny Range lies a wide lowland, at the base of which lies a crystalline basement overlain by marine and alluvial sediments.

In the lowlands, up to 4000-5000 mm of precipitation falls, but its southern regions very dry. The characteristic vegetation type is savannah with tufts of tough grasses and Australian tree species - banksias, eucalyptus and acacia.

There are many reed swamps in the floodplains of the Fly and Digul rivers. Mangrove forests grow at river mouths and along low-lying banks.

New Zealand

New Zealand consists of two large islands - North and South - and a number of small ones. It occupies the southernmost position in Oceania. The islands of New Zealand extend from southwest to northeast and follow a major fault line that continues along the deep-sea Kermadec and Tonga trenches.

New Zealand structures began to form in the Upper Paleozoic. The most important mountain-building movements occurred in the Mesozoic era and in the Paleogene, after which a period of tectonic rest and peneplanation began. In the Pliocene, new folding and differential vertical movements occurred, fragmenting the ancient land and determining the modern contours of the coast.

The development of the organic world occurred mainly without replenishment from the outside. The flora of the islands consists of 74% endemic plants and is relatively poor in species. There are tree ferns (cyathea, dixonia), conifers, myrtaceae, etc. The fauna of New Zealand is also characterized by high endemism and extreme antiquity. Local mammals are represented by two species of bats and one species of rat. There are flightless (kiwi, owl parrot) and flying (nestor parrot) birds. The only representative of the most ancient reptiles (primordial lizards) - the hatteria - has survived.

The nature of the North and South Islands is diverse.

The South Island (area 150 thousand km2) has mountainous terrain. The Southern Alps stretch along the western half of the island. Their height reaches 3764 m. They have up to 50 glaciers with a total area of about 1000 km2. The Otago Plateau (1200-1800 m) adjoins the mountains from the south. In southwest Otago lie large lakes. Along the western slopes of the Southern Alps there is a narrow coastal lowland, and the Canterbury coastal plains adjoin the eastern slopes.

Almost the entire South Island lies in a moderately warm, very humid climate. The average winter temperature is 5-7°C. Sometimes it drops below 0°C. Western winds predominate. In summer, the westerly circulation remains weakened. Temperatures are 14° in the south and 17°C in the north. Precipitation occurs both in winter and summer, but the maximum occurs in summer. On the lowlands, the annual precipitation is 2500 mm, on the mountain slopes - 3500 mm. The eastern slopes receive only 700 mm per year.

The rivers are full-flowing with uniform flow and fed by snow, glaciers and rain. They spread widely in spring and summer.

The western slopes of the mountains are covered with dense mixed forests, in which evergreen trees (laurel and conifers) penetrate far to the south. Above 600 m and up to 1000 m there is a belt of evergreen beech forests. Above it is a belt of low-growing hard-leaved shrubs and mountain meadows. The eastern slopes are covered with evergreen bushes and beech forests.

The North Island (area 115 thousand km2) is separated from the South Island by the Cook Strait graben. The relief is dominated by medium-altitude plateaus, with lowlands widely developed along the edges. Along east coast the Ruahine ridge stretches out. The central part of the island is occupied by a volcanic plateau, above which volcanic cones rise. Among them there are existing ones: Ruapehu - the highest in New Zealand, Tarawera. There are many lakes on the plateau, often thermal. The largest of them is Lake Taupo.

The climate of the North Island is subtropical, warm temperate, with very wet winters. In summer there is less precipitation. The vegetation is represented by mixed subtropical forests, richer in species composition than on the South Island. Thickets of evergreen shrubs dominate on lava plateaus; forests appear only on weathered lavas.

Micronesia

Micronesia includes about 1,500 islands: the Kazan, Mariana, Caroline, Marshall, Gilbert and Nauru archipelagos. All islands are small; the largest of them, Guam, has an area of 583 km2.

The Western archipelagos are located in the belt of geosynclinal structures of the Pacific Ocean floor and are the peaks of volcanoes. The relief of the islands is mountainous (height from 400 to 1000 m). The islands of eastern Micronesia are coral. They rarely rise above the water by more than 1.5 - 2.5 m. Many of them have the shape of typical atolls.

The islands lie in latitudes from equatorial to subtropical. Climate northern islands just as hot and humid as the southern ones. The greatest amount of precipitation (1500-2000 mm) falls on the eastern slopes of the mountainous islands, windward of the northeast trade winds. Previously, the slopes were covered with dense, moist evergreen tropical forests, but currently these forests have greatly decreased in area. The leeward slopes of the islands are occupied by grass savannas. Inland lagoons frame mangroves.

Polynesia

Polynesia unites the islands lying generally east of the 180th meridian, between 30° N. w. and 30° S. sh.: Hawaiian, Phoenix and Tokelau archipelagos, Samoa, Cook Islands, Tubuau, Tahiti, Tuamotu, etc. The islands are the tops of basalt volcanoes, for the most part beheaded by weathering and abrasion, overlain by reef limestones. There are also coral islands - a product of the ocean, madrepore corals and calcareous algae.

The name "Polynesia", meaning many islands, was first used by Charles de Brosses in 1756, and was originally applied to all the islands of the Pacific Ocean. Jules Dumont D'Urville in 1831, in a lecture to the Geographical Society of Paris, proposed restrictions on its use, and also introduced the terms Micronesia and Melanesia. This division into three different Pacific subregions is still used today.

Geographically, Polynesia can be described as a triangle with corners at Hawaii, Aoteaora (New Zealand) and Rapa Nui(Easter Island). Other major island groups located within the Polynesian triangle are Samoa, Tonga, the various island chains that form the Cook Islands and French Polynesia. Niue is a rare, secluded island nation near the center of Polynesia. Island groups outside this large triangle include Tuvalu and the French territory of Wallis and Futuna. There are also small enclaves of isolated Polynesian residents in Papua New Guinea, the Solomons and in Vanuatu. Basically, however, it is an anthropological term applied to one of the three parts of Oceania (others call Micronesia and Melanesia), whose population generally belongs to the same ethnocultural family as a result of centuries of maritime movements.

Polynesia is divided into two distinct cultural groups, Eastern Polynesian and Western Polynesia. The culture of Western Polynesia is driven by its large population. It has strong institutions of marriage, and well-developed judicial, monetary and trading traditions. It includes groups of Tonga, Niue, Samoa and Polynesian areas beyond the borders. Eastern Polynesian cultures are highly adapted to smaller islands and atolls, including the Cook Islands, Tahiti, Tuamotus, Marquesas, Hawaii and Easter Island. However large islands New Zealand was first settled by East Polynesians who adapted their culture to a non-tropical one environment. Religion, agriculture, fishing, weather forecasting, canoeing (similar to modern catamarans), construction and navigation were highly developed skills because the population of the entire island depended on them. Trade was divided into two types: luxury and household goods. Many small islands could suffer severe famine if their gardens were poisoned by salt from a hurricane's storm surge. In such cases, fishing, the primary source of protein, would not alleviate the energy loss of the food. Sailors in particular were highly respected, and each island maintained a navigation house, with a canoe building area. Polynesian settlements had two categories, villages and towns. The size of the inhabited island determined whether or not a village would be built. Large volcanic islands usually had villages divided into many zones across the island. Food and resources were more abundant and so these settlements of four to five houses (usually with gardens) were established so that there was no overlap between zones. Villages, on the other hand, were founded on the coasts of smaller islands and consisted of thirty or more houses. Typically these villages were fortified with walls and palisades made of stone and timber. However, New Zealand demonstrates the opposite; large volcanic islands with fortified villages. Due to the relatively large number of competitive sects of Christian missionaries in the islands, many Polynesian groups converted to Christianity. Polynesian languages are all members of the Oceanic language family, a subgroup of the Austronesian language family.

The organic world is represented by reef-loving plants and animals not only of land, but also of the sea. Along the outer edge of the atoll, seaweeds, foraminifera, sponges, sea urchins And sea stars, crabs and shrimp. Behind the outer graben of the atoll, on thick carbonate soils, land vegetation appears: thickets of evergreen xerophytic shrubs, forests of coconut palms, pandanus, banana thickets and breadfruit groves.

The largest archipelago of Polynesia is the Hawaiian Islands, stretching for 2500 km. The Hawaiian archipelago consists of 24 islands with a total area of 16,700 km2. The largest islands are Hawaii, Maui, Oahu and Kauai. Volcanic activity continues only on the island of Hawaii; on other large islands it ceased at the beginning of the Quaternary period.

Most of the islands are located in a tropical climate zone and are under the continuous influence of northeastern trade winds. The amount of precipitation on the windward slopes exceeds 4000 mm, on the leeward slopes - no more than 700 mm per year. High air temperatures are typical. The northwestern islands of the archipelago lie in the subtropical zone. They are further away from the cold California Current, so they have higher average seasonal temperatures. Precipitation is cyclonic, maximum in winter. The amount of annual precipitation is about 1000 mm.

The flora of Hawaii is highly endemic (up to 93% of species) and uniform, so it is classified as a special Hawaiian subregion of the Paleotropics. It contains gymnosperms, ficus, and epiphytic orchids. Palm trees are represented by three types. The mountains are characterized by seasonally wet mixed forests up to an altitude of 700 m), permanently wet evergreen forests (up to 1200 m), and tropical mountain hylaea (up to 3000 m). Savannas do not rise on slopes higher than 300-600 m.

The islands have a very rich avifauna (67 genera). More than half lead a sedentary lifestyle and nest on islands. In addition to birds, there is one species of bat, several species of lizards, and beetles.

Current state nature and its protection

The islands' landscapes are extremely vulnerable to human economic activity. Great harm is caused by the accidental or deliberate introduction of alien organisms - plants or animals - to the islands.

The condition of the natural environment is worsened by the irrational use of land, the cutting down of valuable tree species, the pollution of coastal water bodies and the direct destruction of the island land.

The nature of biogenic islands is the most vulnerable. The vulnerability of their flora and fauna, as well as their small volume fresh water and above-water land create great difficulties for the conservation of the natural environment.

With the rapid population growth, maintaining adequate sanitation standards on the islands is becoming a difficult task, especially since it is not easy to find a suitable place to dispose of waste and sewage.

Phosphorite mining causes great devastation on some islands. As a result of this, people are creating deserts, the restoration of which is practically inaccessible to the young states of Oceania.

Tourists, lovers of spearfishing and collectors of living souvenirs, cause great harm to the nature of the islands. Already, many states have adopted laws prohibiting the breaking of corals, collecting shells, pearling, and hunting birds and animals.

Island groups

Next are the islands and island groups, or nations or subnational territories, that have a native Polynesian culture. Some islands of Polynesian origin are outside the general triangle that geographically defines the area.

American Samoa (Overseas Territory of the United States)

Anuta (in Solomon Islands)

Cook Islands (self-governing state in association with New Zealand)

Easter Island (part of Chile, named Rapa Nui in Rapa Nui)

Emai (in Vanuatu)

French Polynesia (“foreign country”, territory of France)

Hawaii (United States State)

Kapingamarangi (in the United States of Micronesia)

Mele (in Vanuatu)

New Zealand (called Aotearowa in Maori, usually associated with Australasia)

Niue (self-governing state in free association with New Zealand)

Nigeria (in Papua New Guinea)

Nukumanu (in Papua New Guinea)

Nikuoro (in the United States of Micronesia)

Ontong Java (in Solomon Islands)

Pileni (in Solomon Islands)

Rennell (in Solomon Islands)

Rotuma (in Fiji)

Samoa Islands (independent nation)

Sikaina (in Solomon Islands)

Country Boys Island (politically part of the American Samoan Islands)

Takuu (in Papua New Guinea)

Tikopia (in Solomon Islands)

Tokelau (New Zealand overseas dependency)

Tonga (independent nation)

Tuvalu (independent nation)

Wallis and Futuna (foreign territory of France).

Sources

Wikipedia – The Free Encyclopedia, WikiPedia

oceaniasport.info – Oceania

stranymira.com – Countries

polynesia.ru – Polynesia

Geographically, Oceania is the world's largest collection of islands, which are located in the western and central parts of the Pacific Ocean. Far from us, between the subtropical latitudes of the Northern and temperate Southern hemispheres. Many classifications usually combine Oceania with Australia, although Australia, as we know, is a continent.

Oceania is a world of great contrasts, many interesting plants grow here, unique nature and an unforgettable culture.

The total area of the islands is 1.26 million square kilometers (and together with Australia 8.52 million km²). Population: almost 11 million people. (for the company with Australia - 32.6 million people).

Oceania is divided into three geographical regions, the names of which alone evoke thoughts of adventure and pristine nature. Their names are Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia. The islands of Oceania are washed by many seas of the Pacific Ocean - the Coral Sea, Solomon, New Guinea, Tasman Sea, Koro and Fiji, as well as the Arafura Sea, which belongs to the Indian Ocean basin.

Origin of land in Oceania

From a geological point of view, only Australia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, New Guinea and Tasmania are of continental origin. They were once part of the proto-continent Gondwana, which broke apart. At that time, these islands were solid land, but the waters of the World Ocean rose to a considerable height and part of the surface was flooded. Now the highest parts of the land that belonged to Gondwana protrude above the water.

The topography of most islands is mountainous and highly dissected. There are in Oceania and truly high peaks, including Mount Jaya (elevation 5029 m), on the island of New Guinea.

Types of islands

Colossal transformations apparently took place once in these places. It is determined that most of the islands of Oceania arose as a result of volcanic activity. Some are the tops of large underwater volcanoes, some of which still exhibit high volcanic activity (for example, on the Hawaiian Islands).

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There are also many islands of coral origin in this region. These are atolls that arose as a result of the growth of corals around submerged volcanoes (for example, the Gilbert Islands, Tuamotu). On such islands there are often large lagoons that are protected from open sea numerous islands, the average height of which above the water level does not exceed three meters.

In Oceania there is an atoll with the world's largest lagoon - Kwajalein (Marshall Islands archipelago). The ratio of its land area is striking - 16.32 km², but the area of the lagoon is 2174 km². This is what it says in the reference books, I had no idea before that the area of the island could be less area bay (lagoon).

There is another breakthrough atoll in Oceania. This time the largest in terms of land area. It is called Christmas Island (or Kiritimati) in the Line archipelago and has an area of 322 km².

Among atolls there is also a special type - raised (or elevated) atoll. Such an atoll is a limestone plateau with a height of up to 50-60 m above sea level. This type of island does not have a lagoon or there are traces of its existence in the past. Examples of such atolls are Nauru, Niue, and Banaba.

In the Oceania region, the bottom of the World Ocean has a complex structure. The region is characterized by active volcanism, seismicity and contrasting topography.

Oceania countries

The all-knowing Wikipedia gives the following classification:

Name of region, countries and country flag	Square (km²)	Population (est. July 2002)	Population density (persons/km²)	Capital	Currency
Australia
Australia	7 692 024	21 050 000	2,5	Canberra	AUD (Australian Dollar)
Ashmore and Cartier Islands (Australia)	5	uninhabited	-	-
Coral Sea Islands (Australia)	7	uninhabited	-	-
Norfolk Island (Australia)	35	1 866	53,3	Kingston	AUD (Australian Dollar)
Melanesia
	12 190	196 178	16,1	Port Vila	VUV (Vatu)
Irian Jaya()	421 981	2 646 489	6,27	Jayapura, Manokwari	IDR (Rupiah)
New Caledonia (France)	18 575	207 858	10,9	Noumea
Papua New Guinea	462 840	5 172 033	11,2	Port Moresby	PGK (Kina)
Solomon islands	28 450	494 786	17,4	Honiara	SBD (Solomon Islands Dollar)
Fiji	18 274	856 346	46,9	Suva	FJD (Fiji Dollar)
Micronesia
Guam (USA)	541	160 796	292,9	Hagatna	USD (USA Dollar)
Kiribati	811	96 335	118,8	South Tarawa	AUD (Australian Dollar)
	181	73 630	406,8	Majuro	USD (USA Dollar)
Federated States Micronesia	702	135 869	193,5	Palikir	USD (USA Dollar)
Nauru	21	12 329	587,1		AUD (Australian Dollar)
Palau	458	19 409	42,4	Ngerulmud	USD (USA Dollar)
Northern Mariana Islands (USA)	463,63	77 311	162,1	Saipan	USD (USA Dollar)
Wake Atoll (USA)	7,4	-	-	-
Polynesia
Baker Island (USA)	1,24	uninhabited	-	-
Hawaii (USA)	28 311	1 211 537	72,83	Honolulu	USD (USA Dollar)
Jarvis Island (USA)	4,45	uninhabited	-	-
Johnston Atoll (USA)	2,52	-	-	-
Kingman Reef (USA)	0,01	uninhabited	-	-
Kiribati	811	96 335	118,8	South Tarawa	AUD (Australian Dollar)
Cook Islands (New Zealand)	236,7	20 811	86,7	Avarua	NZD (New Zealand Dollar)
Midway Islands (USA)	6,23	-	-	-
Niue (New Zealand)	261,46	2 134	8,2	Alofi	NZD (New Zealand Dollar)
New Zealand	268 680	4 108 037	14,5	Wellington	NZD (New Zealand Dollar)
Palmyra Atoll (USA)	6,56	-	-	-
Isla de Pascua (Chile)	163,6	5806	23,1	Hanga Roa	CLP (Chilean Pesso)
Pitcairn Islands (UK)	47	47	10	Adamstown	NZD (New Zealand Dollar)
French Polynesia (France)	4 167	257 847	61,9	Papeete	XPF (French Pacific Franc)
American Samoa(USA)	199	68 688	345,2	Pago Pago, Fagatogo	USD (USA Dollar)
Samoa	2 935	178 631	60,7	Apia	WST (Samoan tala)
Tokelau (New Zealand)	10	1 431	143,1	-	NZD (New Zealand Dollar)
Tonga	748	106 137	141,9	Nuku'alofa	TOP (Tongan pa'anga)
Tuvalu	26	11 146	428,7	Funafuti	AUD (Australian Dollar)
Wallis and Futuna (France)	274	15 585	56,9	Mata-Utu	XPF (French Pacific Franc)
Howland Island (USA)	1,62	uninhabited	-	-

Oceania. Climate

The prevailing climate is tropical. Oceania is characterized by high rainfall. On the islands located closer to the tropical zone, the average annual temperature is +23 °C, on the islands near the equator – +27 °C.

Oceania's climate is influenced by currents such as La Niña and El Niño. Most of the islands of Oceania are negatively affected by active volcanoes. Tsunamis and typhoons also happen here.

There are sudden changes in weather conditions here - heavy rains give way to droughts.

Population of Oceania

Although colonialists from Europe and America actively tried to exploit these territories, the majority of the local population are indigenous people. Such as Micronesians, Polynesians, Papuans. Polynesians are mixed racial types - they show features of Caucasoids and Mongoloids.

The largest groups of Polynesians include Hawaiians, Maoris, Tongans, and Tahitians. Each nationality has its own language, the peculiarity of which is the almost complete absence of consonants.

Among the Melanesians, the linguistic fragmentation of the tribes is very large. Often residents of even neighboring villages cannot understand each other. The Papuans, as in Cook's time, inhabit some regions of Indonesia and New Guinea.

All Papuan languages are very similar to each other. But now they are based on the native language of the same Cook who, according to legend, was eaten, i.e. English. So if you speak English, you can speak fluently and easily with a Papuan.

Flora of Oceania

Oceania has a large extent both in latitude and meridian. That's why vegetable world The islands are very diverse. There are representatives here that are completely surprising to us, such as:

breadfruit,
coconut palm,
ferns
orchids.

Animal world

The fauna of the islands of Oceania is less diverse, because mammals are practically absent.

New Zealand and New Guinea have the greatest diversity in Okenia. On the small islands of Oceania, primarily atolls, there are almost no mammals: many of them are inhabited only by rats, and even then only a few (they are probably protected there!?).

But the islands are very rich in bird colonies, where seabirds nest. Of the fauna of New Zealand, the most famous are the kiwi birds, which have become the national symbol of the country. Other common bird species are kea (or nestor), kakapo (or owl parrot), takahe (or wingless parakeet).

Oceania is a part of the world; a geographical, often geopolitical, region of the world consisting primarily of hundreds of small islands and atolls in the central and western Pacific Ocean.

Geographical position

The islands of Oceania are washed by numerous seas of the Pacific (Coral Sea, Tasman Sea, Fiji Sea, Koro Sea, Solomon Sea, New Guinea Sea, Philippine Sea) and Indian Oceans (Arafura Sea).

Countries and dependent territories

Name of region, countries	Population	Population density (persons/km²)
Australia
Australia			Canberra	AUD (Australian Dollar)
Ashmore and Cartier (Australia)	uninhabited
Cocos Islands (Australia)			West Island	AUD (Australian Dollar)
Coral Sea Islands (Australia)	uninhabited
Norfolk (Australia)			Kingston	AUD (Australian Dollar)
Christmas Island (Australia)			Flying Fish Cove	AUD (Australian Dollar)
Heard Island and McDonald Islands (Australia)	uninhabited
Melanesia
Vanuatu			Port Vila
Irian Jaya (Indonesia)			Jayapura, Manokwari
New Caledonia (France)
Papua New Guinea			Port Moresby
Solomon islands				SBD (Solomon Islands Dollar)
Fiji				FJD (Fiji Dollar)
Micronesia
Guam (USA)				USD (USA Dollar)
Kiribati			South Tarawa	AUD (Australian Dollar)
Marshall Islands				USD (USA Dollar)
Nauru				AUD (Australian Dollar)
Palau			Melekeok	USD (USA Dollar)
Northern Mariana Islands (USA)				USD (USA Dollar)
Wake (USA)
Federated States of Micronesia				USD (USA Dollar)
Polynesia
American Samoa (USA)			Pago Pago, Fagatogo	USD (USA Dollar)
Baker (USA)	uninhabited
Hawaii (USA)			Honolulu	USD (USA Dollar)
Jarvis (USA)	uninhabited
Johnston (USA)
Kingman (USA)	uninhabited
Kiribati			South Tarawa	AUD (Australian Dollar)
Midway (USA)
Niue (New Zealand)				NZD (New Zealand Dollar)
New Zealand			Wellington	NZD (New Zealand Dollar)
Cook Islands (New Zealand)				NZD (New Zealand Dollar)
Easter Island (Chile)			Hanga Roa	CLP (Chilean Pesso)
Palmyra (USA)
Pitcairn (UK)			Adamstown	NZD (New Zealand Dollar)
Samoa				WST (Samoan tala)
Tokelau (New Zealand)				NZD (New Zealand Dollar)
Tonga			Nuku'alofa	TOP (Tongan pa'anga)
Tuvalu			Funafuti	AUD (Australian Dollar)
Wallis and Futuna (France)				XPF (French Pacific Franc)
French Polynesia (France)				XPF (French Pacific Franc)
Howland (USA)	uninhabited

Geology

From a geological point of view, Oceania is not a continent: only Australia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, New Guinea and Tasmania are of continental origin, having formed on the site of the hypothetical continent of Gondwana. In the past, these islands were a single landmass, but as a result of rising sea levels, a significant part of the surface was under water. The relief of these islands is mountainous and highly dissected. For example, the highest mountains of Oceania, including Mount Jaya (5029 m), are located on the island of New Guinea.

Most of the islands of Oceania are of volcanic origin: some of them are the tops of large underwater volcanoes, some of which still exhibit high volcanic activity (for example, the Hawaiian Islands).

Oceania Climate

There are glaciers high in the mountains on the South Island of New Zealand and on the island of New Guinea, but due to global warming, their area is gradually decreasing.

Soils and hydrology

Due to different climatic conditions, Oceania's soils are very diverse. The soils of the atolls are highly alkaline, of coral origin, and very poor. They are usually porous, which is why they retain moisture very poorly, and also contain very little organic and mineral substances with the exception of calcium, sodium and magnesium. The soils of volcanic islands are usually of volcanic origin and are characterized by high fertility. On large mountainous islands there are red-yellow, mountain lateritic, mountain-meadow, yellow-brown soils, yellow soils, and red soils.

Large rivers are found only on the South and North Islands of New Zealand, as well as on the island of New Guinea, which contains the largest rivers in Oceania, the Sepik (1126 km) and Fly (1050 km). The largest river in New Zealand is the Waikato (425 km). The rivers are fed primarily by rain, although in New Zealand and New Guinea the rivers are also fed by water from melting glaciers and snow. On atolls there are no rivers at all due to the high porosity of the soil. Instead, rainwater percolates through the soil to form a lens of slightly brackish water that can be reached by digging a well. On larger islands (usually of volcanic origin) there are small streams of water that flow towards the ocean.

The largest number of lakes, including thermal ones, are located in New Zealand, where there are also geysers. On other islands of Oceania, lakes are a rarity.

Flora and fauna

Oceania is included in the Paleotropical region of vegetation, with three subregions distinguished: Melanesian-Micronesian, Hawaiian and New Zealand. Among the most widespread plants in Oceania are the coconut palm and the breadfruit tree, which play an important role in the lives of local residents: the fruits are used for food, the wood is a source of heat, a building material, and copra is produced from the oily endosperm of coconut palm nuts, which forms the basis of exports of the countries of this region. A large number of epiphytes (ferns, orchids) also grow on the islands. The largest number of endemics (both flora and fauna) are recorded in New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, while from west to east there is a decrease in the number of species, genera and families of plants.

The fauna of Oceania also belongs to the Polynesian faunal region with a subregion of the Hawaiian Islands. The fauna of New Zealand is allocated to an independent region, New Guinea - to the Papuan subregion of the Australian region. New Zealand and New Guinea are the most diverse. On the small islands of Oceania, primarily atolls, mammals are almost never found: many of them are inhabited only by the small rat. But the local avifauna is very rich. Most atolls have bird colonies where seabirds nest. Of the fauna of New Zealand, the most famous are the kiwi birds, which have become the national symbol of the country. Other endemics of the country are kea (Latin: Nestor notabilis, or nestor), kakapo (Latin: Strigops habroptilus, or owl parrot), takahe (Latin: Notoronis hochstelteri, or wingless plume). All the islands of Oceania are home to a large number of lizards, snakes and insects.

During the European colonization of the islands, alien species of plants and animals were introduced to many of them, which negatively affected the local flora and fauna.

Population

The indigenous inhabitants of Oceania are Polynesians, Micronesians, Melanesians and Papuans.

Papuans inhabit the island of New Guinea and some areas of Indonesia. In terms of anthropological type, they are close to the Melanesians, but differ from them in language. Not all Papuan languages are related to each other. The national language of the Papuans in Papua New Guinea is the English-based Tok Pisin creole language. According to various sources of peoples and languages, the Papuans number from 300 to 800. However, there are difficulties in establishing the difference between an individual language and a dialect.

Many languages of Oceania are on the verge of extinction. In everyday life they are increasingly being replaced by English and French.

The situation of the indigenous population in the countries of Oceania is different. If, for example, in the Hawaiian Islands their share is very low, then in New Zealand Maori make up up to 15% of the country's population. The share of Polynesians in the Northern Mariana Islands, located in Micronesia, is about 21.3%. In Papua New Guinea, the majority of the population is made up of numerous Papuan peoples, although there is also a high proportion of people from other islands in the region.

In New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, the majority of the population is European, whose share is also high in New Caledonia (34%) and French Polynesia (12%). On the Fiji Islands, 38.2% of the population is represented by Indo-Fijians, descendants of Indian contract workers brought to the islands by the British in the 19th century.

The population of Oceania mainly professes Christianity, adhering to either the Protestant or Catholic branches.

History of Oceania

Pre-colonial period

Colonial period

The ships of the English explorer James Cook and the canoes of the natives in Matavai Bay on the island of Tahiti (French Polynesia), artist William Hodges, 1776

In the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries, the period of study of Oceania by Europeans continued, who gradually began to populate the islands. However, the process of European colonization proceeded very slowly, since the region did not arouse much interest among foreigners due to the lack of natural resources, and had a negative impact on the local population: many diseases were introduced that had never existed in Oceania, and this led to epidemics, in as a result of which a significant part of the natives died. At the same time, there was a Christianization of the inhabitants, who worshiped numerous deities and spirits.

In the 18th-19th centuries, the islands of Oceania were divided between colonial powers, primarily the British Empire, Spain and France (later joined by the USA and the German Empire). Of particular interest to Europeans was the possibility of creating plantations on the islands (coconut palms for the production of copra, sugar cane), as well as the slave trade (the so-called “blackbird hunt,” which involved recruiting islanders to work on plantations).

Post-colonial period

Economy

A significant part of the population is employed in the public sector. Recently, measures have been taken to develop the tourism sector of the economy.

Culture

The art of Oceania has developed a distinctive style that makes the local culture unique.

In the visual arts of the Polynesians, the main place belongs to wood carving and sculpture. Among the Maori, carving reached a high level; they decorated boats, parts of houses, carved statues of gods and ancestors; such a statue stands in every village. The main motif of the ornament is a spiral. Stone moai statues were created on Easter Island and the Marquesas Islands. Of the crafts, the most important was the construction of boats, as they made it possible to engage in fishing and travel over long distances (in connection with this, astronomy developed among the Polynesians). Tattooing is widespread among Polynesians. The clothing used was tapa, which was made from the bark of trees of the mulberry family. Myths, legends, fairy tales, singing and dancing were developed in Polynesia. Writing was probably only on Easter Island (rongo-rongo); on other islands folklore was transmitted orally.

Singing and dancing are popular forms of art among Micronesians. Each tribe has its own myths. In the life of the islanders, the main place was occupied by ships - boats. There were different types of boats: dibenil - a sailing boat, valab - a large rowing boat. Megaliths are found on the Yap Islands. Of particular interest is Nan Madol, known as the “Venice of Micronesia”. This is a whole city on the water, in a lagoon on the island of Ponape. Stone structures were built on artificial islands.

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Australia and Oceania on the hemisphere map

Australia and Oceania on the world map

Oceania- the collective name for a vast collection of islands and atolls in the central and western parts of the Pacific Ocean. The boundaries of Oceania are arbitrary. The western border is considered to be the island, the eastern -. As a rule, Australia, as well as islands and archipelagos, are not included in Oceania South-East Asia, Far East and North America. In the section of geography, regional studies, Oceania is studied by an independent discipline - oceanography.

Geographical position

Physical map of Australia and Oceania (English)

Regions of Australia and Oceania

Political map of Australia and Oceania

Oceania is the world's largest collection of islands, located in the southwestern and central parts of the Pacific Ocean, between the subtropical latitudes of the Northern and temperate Southern hemispheres. When dividing the entire landmass into parts of the world, Oceania is usually united with Australia into a single part of the world, Australia and Oceania, although sometimes it is separated into an independent part of the world.

Geographically, Oceania is divided into several regions: (in the northwest), (in the west), and (in the east); sometimes isolated.

The total area of the islands of Oceania, the largest of which is, is 1.26 million km² (together with Australia 8.52 million km²), the population is about 10.7 million people. (together with Australia 32.6 million people). Excluding Australia, Oceania is comparable in total area and total population to an African state.

The islands of Oceania are washed by numerous seas of the Pacific (Coral Sea, Tasman Sea, Fiji Sea, Koro Sea, Solomon Sea, New Guinea Sea, Philippine Sea) and Indian Oceans (Arafura Sea).

Oceania is crossed by the equator and the international date line. It is a broken line, most of which runs along the 180° meridian.

Sea currents

The warm Northern Trade Wind and Southern Trade Wind Currents and the Inter-Trade Wind Countercurrent pass through all of Oceania, along the equator. The warm East Australian Current passes through the southwestern part of Oceania. Characteristic of Oceania is the absence of cold sea currents (with the exception of the Pacific Ocean southeast of New Zealand), which largely determines the climate of this region.

Independent states

Main article: List of states and dependent territories of Oceania

Name of region, countries and country flag	Square (km²)	Population (est. July 1, 2002)	Population density (persons/km²)	Capital	Currency unit
Australia	7 692 024	21 050 000	2,5		Australian dollar (AUD)
	12 190	196 178	16,1		cotton wool (VUV)
	462 840	5 172 033	11,2		kina (PGK)
	28 450	494 786	17,4		Solomon Islands dollar (SBD)
	18 274	856 346	46,9		Fijian dollar (FJD)
	811	96 335	118,8		Australian dollar (AUD)
	21	12 329	587,1	No	Australian dollar (AUD)
	268 680	4 108 037	14,5		New Zealand dollar (NZD)
	2 935	178 631	60,7		tala (WST)
	748	106 137	141,9		pa'anga (TOP)
	26	11 146	428,7	Funafuti	Australian dollar (AUD)

Dependent territories and trustee territories

Name of region, country and country flag	Square (km²)	Population (est. July 1, 2002)	Population density (persons/km²)	Administrative center	Currency unit
Australia
(Australia)	5	uninhabited	-	-
Coral Sea Islands (Australia)	7	uninhabited	-	-
Norfolk (Australia)	35	1 866	53,3	Kingston	Australian dollar (AUD)

Western New Guinea ( )	424 500	2 646 489	6	,	Indonesian rupiah (IDR)
()	18 575	207 858	10,9

()	541	160 796	292,9		US dollar (USD)
	181	73 630	406,8		US dollar (USD)
	458	19 409	42,4		US dollar (USD)
Northern Mariana Islands ()	463,63	77 311	162,1	Saipan	US dollar (USD)
Wake()	7,4	-	-	-
	702	135 869	193,5		US dollar (USD)

()	199	68 688	345,2	, Fagatogo	US dollar (USD)
Baker()	1,24	uninhabited	-	-
()	28 311	1 211 537	72,83		US dollar (USD)
Jarvis()	4,45	uninhabited	-	-
()	2,52	-	-	-
Kingman()	0,01	uninhabited	-	-
()	6,23	-	-	-
()	261,46	2 134	8,2		New Zealand dollar (NZD)
()	236,7	20 811	86,7		New Zealand dollar (NZD)
Palmyra ()	6,56	-	-	-
Isla de Pascua ()	163,6	3791	23,1	Hanga Roa	Chilean Peso (CLP)
()	47	67	1,4	Adamstown	New Zealand dollar (NZD)
()	10	1 431	143,1	-	New Zealand dollar (NZD)
()	274	15 585	56,9		French Pacific franc (XPF)
French polynesia ()	4 167	257 847	61,9		French Pacific franc (XPF)
()	1,62	uninhabited	-	-

Geology

Mount Jaya in Western New Guinea (Indonesia) - highest point Oceania

From a geological point of view, Oceania is not a continent: only Australia, and is of continental origin, having formed on the site of the hypothetical continent of Gondwana. In the past, these islands were a single landmass, but as a result of rising sea levels, a significant part of the surface was under water. The relief of these islands is mountainous and highly dissected. For example, the highest mountains of Oceania, including Mount Jaya (5029 m), are located on the island.

Most of the islands of Oceania are of volcanic origin: some of them are the tops of large underwater volcanoes, some of which still exhibit high volcanic activity (for example, the Hawaiian Islands).

Other islands originate as atolls, which were formed as a result of the formation of coral structures around submerged volcanoes (for example, the Gilbert Islands, Tuamotu). A distinctive feature of such islands are large lagoons, which are surrounded by numerous islets, or motu, the average height of which does not exceed three meters. In Oceania, there is an atoll with the largest lagoon in the world - Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands archipelago. Although its land area is only 16.32 km² (or 6.3 sq. miles), its lagoon area is 2,174 km² (or 839.3 sq. miles). The largest atoll by land area is Christmas Island (or Kiritimati) in the Line Archipelago (or Central Polynesian Sporades) - 322 km². However, among atolls there is also a special type - a raised (or elevated) atoll, which is a limestone plateau up to 50-60 m high above sea level. This type of island does not have a lagoon or there are traces of its past existence. Examples of such atolls are Banaba.

The relief and geological structure of the Pacific Ocean floor in the Oceania region has a complex structure. From the peninsula (part of) to New Zealand there are a large number of basins of marginal seas, deep ocean trenches (Tonga, Kermadec, Bougainville), which form a geosynclinal belt characterized by active volcanism, seismicity and contrasting topography.

On most of the islands of Oceania there are no mineral resources, only the largest of them are being developed: nickel (), oil and gas (island), copper (Bougainville island), gold (New Guinea), phosphates (on most islands there are almost or have already been developed, for example, in, on the islands of Banaba, Makatea). In the past, many islands in the region were heavily mined for decomposed seabird droppings, which were used as nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer. On the ocean floor of the exclusive economic zone of a number of countries there are large accumulations of iron-manganese nodules, as well as cobalt, but at the moment no development is being carried out due to economic inexpediency.

Climate

Satellite image of Kwajalein Atoll

Coast of Caroline Atoll (Line Islands, Kiribati)

There are glaciers on the South Island of New Zealand and on the island high in the mountains, but due to global warming, their area is gradually decreasing.

Soils and hydrology

Stream on Efate Island (Vanuatu)

There are large rivers only on the South and North Islands of New Zealand, as well as on the island on which the largest rivers in Oceania, the Sepik (1126 km) and Fly (1050 km), are located. The largest river in New Zealand is the Waikato (425 km). The rivers are fed primarily by rain, although in New Zealand and New Guinea the rivers are also fed by water from melting glaciers and snow. On atolls there are no rivers at all due to the high porosity of the soil. Instead, rainwater percolates through the soil to form a lens of slightly brackish water that can be reached by digging a well. On larger islands (usually of volcanic origin) there are small streams of water that flow towards the ocean.

The largest number of lakes, including thermal ones, are located in New Zealand, where there are also geysers. On other islands of Oceania, lakes are a rarity.

Flora and fauna

Kiwi - the symbol of New Zealand

Oceania is included in the Paleotropical region of vegetation, with three subregions distinguished: Melanesian-Micronesian, Hawaiian and New Zealand. Among the most widespread plants in Oceania are the coconut palm and the breadfruit tree, which play an important role in the lives of local residents: the fruits are used for food, the wood is a source of heat, a building material, and copra is produced from the oily endosperm of coconut palm nuts, which forms the basis of exports of the countries of this region. A large number of epiphytes (ferns, orchids) also grow on the islands. The largest number of endemics (both flora and fauna) are recorded in New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, while from west to east there is a decrease in the number of species, genera and families of plants.

The fauna of Oceania belongs to the Polynesian faunal region with a subregion of the Hawaiian Islands. The fauna of New Zealand is allocated to an independent region, New Guinea - to the Papuan subregion of the Australian region. New Zealand and New Guinea are the most diverse. On the small islands of Oceania, primarily atolls, mammals are almost never found: many of them are inhabited only by the small rat. But the local avifauna is very rich. Most atolls have bird colonies where seabirds nest. Of the fauna of New Zealand, the most famous are the kiwi birds, which have become the national symbol of the country. Other endemics of the country are kea (lat. Nestor notabilis, or nestor), kakapo (lat. Strigops habroptilus, or owl parrot), takahe (lat. Notoronis hochstelteri, or wingless sultana). All the islands of Oceania are home to a large number of lizards, snakes and insects.

During the European colonization of the islands, alien species of plants and animals were introduced to many of them, which negatively affected the local flora and fauna.

Story

Main article: History of Oceania

Pre-colonial period

Island and nearby islands Names of Russians on the map of the tropical Pacific Ocean. Source:.

Letter from N. N. Miklouho-Maclay to the Head of a detachment of ships in the Pacific Ocean with a proposal to acquire areas on the islands of the Pacific Ocean suitable for coal storage, March 30, 1873.

In the Russian Empire, after the discovery of the northwestern coast of America by W. Bering in 1741, merchant companies, with the support of the Siberian administration, organized about 90 fishing expeditions to the Pacific Ocean until the end of the 18th century. The state established the Russian-American Company (1799-1867), which dealt with administrative issues and trade in Alaska and the Pacific Ocean. In May 1804, two ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” approached the Hawaiian Islands. These were the first Russian ships to circumnavigate the world. In the heart of the tropical Pacific Ocean there are atolls and islands of Rossiyan, Suvorov, Kutuzov, Lisyansky, Bellingshausen, Barclay de Tolly, Krusenstern Reef and many others. Another distinctive aspect of all the travels that took place is the mutual friendliness in the history of meetings between Russians and the peoples of the Pacific Ocean.

Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklouho-Maclay's map of Russia's supposed territorial acquisitions in the Pacific Ocean, submitted in a letter Alexander III, December 1883.

A letter to the Main Naval Headquarters from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs regarding N. N. Miklouho-Maclay’s proposal on Russian acquisitions in the Pacific Ocean with a resolution “... to consider this matter finally over. Refuse Miklouho-Maclay,” December 1886.

As the first European to settle on the shores of Astrolabe Bay in New Guinea and explore this area, N. N. Miklouho Maclay repeatedly made a proposal to peacefully occupy or take under the protection of Russia a number of islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Russian scientist sent letters to the Naval Ministry, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and personally to Emperor Alexander III.

Colonial period

The ships of the English explorer James Cook and the canoes of the natives in Matavai Bay on the island of Tahiti (French Polynesia), artist William Hodges, 1776

In the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries, the period of study of Oceania by Europeans continued, who gradually began to populate the islands. However, the process of European colonization proceeded very slowly, since the region did not arouse much interest among foreigners due to the lack of natural resources, and had a negative impact on the local population: many diseases were introduced that had never existed in Oceania, and this led to epidemics, in as a result of which a significant part of the natives died. At the same time, there was a Christianization of the inhabitants, who worshiped numerous deities and spirits.

In the 18th-19th centuries, the islands of Oceania were divided between colonial powers, primarily the British Empire, and (later the German Empire joined them). Of particular interest to Europeans was the possibility of creating plantations on the islands (coconut palms for the production of copra, sugar cane), as well as the slave trade (the so-called "Blackbird Hunt", which involved recruiting islanders to work on plantations).

In 1907 it became a dominion, but formally it became a completely independent state only in 1947. After the First World War, the first political organizations began to emerge (“May” in Western Samoa, “Fiji Youth” in Fiji), which fought for the independence of the colonies. During World War II, Oceania was one of the theaters of war where many battles took place (mainly between Japanese and American forces).

After the war, there were some economic improvements in the region, but in most colonies it was lopsided (the predominance of the plantation economy and the almost complete absence of industry). Since the 1960s, the process of decolonization began: in 1962, West Irian gained independence, in 1963, and in 1968. Subsequently, most of the colonies became independent.

Post-colonial period

After gaining independence, the bulk of the countries of Oceania retained serious economic, political and social problems, the solution of which is carried out with the participation of international organizations (including the UN) and within the framework of regional cooperation. Despite the process of decolonization in the 20th century, some islands still remain dependent to one degree or another: New Caledonia Portrait of a representative of the indigenous people of New Zealand - Maori

The indigenous inhabitants of Oceania are Polynesians, Micronesians, Melanesians and Papuans.

Polynesians living in the countries of Polynesia have a mixed racial type, combining features of the Australoid and Mongoloid races. The largest peoples of Polynesia are Hawaiians, Samoans, Tahitians, Tongans, Maoris, Marquesans, Rapanui and others. Native languages belong to the Polynesian subgroup of the Austronesian family of languages: Hawaiian, Samoan, Tahitian, Tongan, Maori, Marquesan, Rapanui and others. Characteristic features of Polynesian languages are a small number of sounds, especially consonants, and an abundance of vowels.

Papuans inhabit the island and some areas. In terms of anthropological type, they are close to the Melanesians, but differ from them in language. Not all Papuan languages are related to each other. The national language of the Papuans in Papua New Guinea is the English-based Tok Pisin creole language. According to various sources of peoples and languages, the Papuans number from 300 to 800. However, there are difficulties in establishing the difference between an individual language and a dialect.

Many languages of Oceania are on the verge of extinction. In everyday life they are increasingly being replaced by English and French.

The situation of the indigenous population in the countries of Oceania is different. If, for example, in the Hawaiian Islands their share is very low, then in New Zealand Maori make up up to 15% of the country's population. The share of Polynesians in Micronesia is about 21.3%. The majority of the population is made up of numerous Papuan peoples, although there is also a high proportion of people from other islands in the region.

In New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, the majority of the population is European, whose share is also high in (34%) and in French Polynesia (12%). On the islands, 38.2% of the population is represented by Indo-Fijians, descendants of Indian contract workers brought to the islands by the British in the 19th century.

Recently, in the countries of Oceania, the proportion of immigrants from (mainly Chinese and Filipinos) has been increasing. For example, in the Northern Mariana Islands, the share of Filipinos is 26.2%, and the Chinese are 22.1%.

The population of Oceania mainly professes Christianity, adhering to either the Protestant or Catholic branches.

Economy

Economy of Oceania. Donation and economic unions.

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Geographical location of Oceania, countries and dependent territories of Oceania

Geology and climate of Oceania, soils and hydrology of Oceania, economy and culture of Oceania, Melanesia, Micronesia, New Zealand and Polynesia

Origin of land in Oceania

Types of islands

Oceania countries

Melanesia

Micronesia

Polynesia

Oceania. Climate

Population of Oceania

Flora of Oceania

Animal world

Geographical position

Countries and dependent territories

Geology

Oceania Climate

Soils and hydrology

Flora and fauna

Population

History of Oceania

Pre-colonial period

Colonial period

Post-colonial period

Economy

Culture

Geographical position

Sea currents

Independent states

Dependent territories and trustee territories

Geology

Climate

Soils and hydrology

Flora and fauna

Story

Pre-colonial period

Colonial period

Post-colonial period

Economy

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