Ancient city Shooting gallery His story is full of heroism and tragedy. Tire was the only city that, unlike other Phoenician cities, did not surrender to Alexander the Great. The inhabitants of Tire preferred a brutal war to a humiliating peace. The consequences of insane courage were terrifying. The once crowded streets are empty. The city turned into the kingdom of the dead.
There were various legends about the founding of Tire. The Phoenicians themselves called their city Tsor, “rock,” since it was located on a rocky island. Astarte found a star that had fallen from the sky here and gave birth to the sea god Melqart, the future patron of Tyre. Legends claim that before the founding of the first settlement, this tiny piece of land plowed the waters of the Mediterranean Sea. Melqart, who taught the Canaanites to build ships, ordered the people to find their birthplace. There they had to sacrifice an eagle, which fought with a serpent. As soon as the eagle's blood sprinkled the rocks, the island instantly stopped. This happened eight hundred meters from the shore. Since then, Tyrian sailors began to donate ship anchors to Melqart, the “sea baal”. In the 28th century BC. the townspeople erected a temple in his honor. In front of him stood two nine-meter columns of pure gold. The priests walked around the temple grounds barefoot. Daily sacrifices were accompanied by ritual dances. In gratitude, Melqart allowed the city's inhabitants to colonize the vast Mediterranean coastline.Citizens of the colonies and metropolis, in turn, attributed to their patron the creation of everything that was especially valued by them. According to legend, it was Melqart who taught people how to get purple-bearing mollusks from the bottom of the sea. After the mollusk's body dried in the sun, a drop of bright liquid remained in the shell. The droplets were gathering. They were used to make paint that was used to dye fabric. Its cost was incredibly high: only kings and their entourage could afford to buy a piece for a tunic. Phoenician traders supplied purple to the Greeks and Romans, who were convinced that their continent was called Europe thanks to the Phoenician daughter of the Tyrian king Agenora. As you know, a bull with sad eyes kidnapped Europa while she was walking on the Tyrian shore of the Mediterranean Sea.
In the 10th century BC. King Hiram rebuilt the main sanctuary of the city. It was surrounded by accommodation for pilgrims. Melqart came to them in a dream. His prophecies about the future were deciphered by Tyrian dream interpreters. The gods then had no idea that just a few centuries later Phenicia would be visited by the descendant of Hercules and Achilles, the son of Zeus, at whose birth Artemis herself was present. This son was Alexander III, better known as Alexander the Great. Before the start of the campaign, he went to Delphi to visit Apollo to listen to his thoughts on the upcoming action. It was winter, and Apollo, as you know, flew away from Delphi for the winter. The oracles were silent. So there was no one to ask about the future. Alexander tried to drag the priestess of Apollo into the temple so that she could predict the fate of the Asian campaign. The priestess, fighting back, shouted: “Oh, Alexander, do you think that you are invincible?” The last word calmed the Macedonian king, and with a light heart he moved to the East to recapture the cities once lost to the Greeks. In the spring of 334 BC. The army of long-haired, short-legged, clean-shaven and sweetly smelling of oils Alexander treacherously, without declaring war, attacked the Persians. The Macedonian began the war with virtually nothing. After the first battle, the Persian king Darius promised Alexander to pay as much as the inhabitants of all Macedonia could not bear. Alexander refused. He had already decided to conquer the Phoenician cities, which provided the Persian navy with ships and crew. This was very easy to do, since the city-states that competed with each other in the Mediterranean markets were at enmity with each other. Byblos surrendered immediately. This city hoped to regain its former power with the help of Alexander. Then Sidon surrendered. Its inhabitants believed that under the new ruler they would finally see Tire on its knees. Alexander's advance from Sidon to the south was briefly stopped by Tyrian envoys. They placed a golden wreath on the head of the conqueror of Phenicia and declared their readiness to submit to the will of the king. Alexander asked the ambassadors to tell the Tyrians that he wished to make sacrifices to Melqart in the temple on the island. The Tyrians advised the Macedonian to make a sacrifice in Paletira, that is, in Old Tire, a city on the mainland. The commander could not bear such an insult. One of the longest and most stubborn sieges in the entire history of war began. Alexander the Great decided to connect the island to the mainland using a dam. He first poured two buckets of sand into its base. Residents of Paletir were forced to demolish their own houses so that the dam would not have a shortage of building materials. Everything was done by hand, without horse traction. Cedar trunks were dragged from the mountains of Lebanon and buried in the seabed. This was the beginning of the predatory destruction of Phoenician forests. Alexander built his fleet from cedar and was so carried away that this tree is still very rare in Lebanon. Before the arrival of the Macedonians, the mountain slopes of Phenicia were covered with lush vegetation.
The dam to the island took seven months, and forty thousand inhabitants of Tire held out for exactly the same amount of time. In July 332 BC. troops burst into the city. 6 thousand Phoenicians were slaughtered, 13 thousand were sold into slavery. As a warning to the rebellious, 2 thousand defenders were nailed to crosses. The crosses stood along the main road, and the corpses were not removed from them for several weeks. The Macedonians who died during the assault (there were about four hundred of them) were buried according to the ritual described by Homer in the Iliad: the bodies were burned, the bones were washed in wine, wrapped in purple and placed in a tomb along with weapons. This is how Homer’s Patroclus and Hector were buried.
From Tire the Macedonian set out to conquer Egypt. This country attracted Alexander irresistibly. The peoples of the Mediterranean considered it the cradle of the most respected and most ancient culture. The Egyptians welcomed the king as a liberator from the Persian yoke. He was declared pharaoh, the son of the sun god Ra. The new ruler ordered the construction of a temple with a sanctuary in his honor in Karnak.
In 331 BC. the victorious army returned to Phenicia. Alexander set up a court camp in Tire. The Tsar was visited by architects, artists, sculptors, writers, philosophers, historians, and poets. In Tire lived relatives of the defeated Phoenician aristocrats, the noblest of the hetaeras. Tributes from already conquered cities flowed into the city, trials were held here under the chairmanship of Alexander, and ambassadors of foreign powers were received here. No more than two years had passed since the start of the campaign, a third of the world had been conquered, and Alexander decided to give the troops a break from military affairs. Idleness sucked me in. Alexander fought with her as best he could. He organized sports games, like the Greek Olympics. Particularly popular were chariot racing, pentathlon, wrestling and fist fighting. Comic battles between “friends” and “enemies” took place. The “friends,” led by the tsar, invariably won, although this did not give the commander much pleasure. The soldiers smeared him with sheep dung, put him on a donkey and walked past, singing obscene songs. Theater Olympics were often held in Tire. Actors from Italy, Asia Minor, and Greece came here. They read poetry and staged Euripides and Sophocles. The soldiers preferred hilarious actors. They beat women with leather phalluses, committed theatrical violence against them, urinated and relieved themselves, and masturbated right in front of the audience. The actresses performed something like a cancan, while exposing everything that the public wanted to see. Alexander believed that such a “front-line theater” helps soldiers get rid of fear and homesickness. In May 331 BC. the thirst for adventure took Alexander from Tire further to the east.
Having created a huge empire, the great conqueror died either from swamp fever, or from a severe hangover, or from poisoning. After his death, his empire fell into pieces. Phenicia was ruled by one of Alexander the Great's generals, Seleucus. By this time, the Greeks made up a significant part of the population of Phenicia. They brought with them technical progress, succeeded in building roads, laying reliable water pipelines, and introduced a unified monetary system. In a word, they planted civilization here. The Greek language spread everywhere. And who knows, Christianity would have gone beyond the borders of Judea, it would have become a world religion without an intermediary mission Greek language, without bloody conquests Alexandra III, better known as Alexander the Great.
The location of Thira remained controversial for a long time 1 . Its final location was established by E.R. Stern 2 at the beginning of the 20th century, who discovered it as a result of excavations in 1900 and 1912. on the territory of the courtyards of the Akkerman fortress and the fortress square there is a thick layer of the ancient period. The excavations of Thira were not systematic and were sporadic. In 1918, 1927-1930 research was carried out by Romanian archaeologists 3, in 1932, 1935, 1940 - by the scientific curator b. Akkerman Museum by V. A. Shakhnazarov. After the Great Patriotic War, the Institute of Archeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR began systematic research of Tire. From 1945 to 1950 the work was carried out under the leadership of L. D. Dmitrov 4. In 1953, 1958-1960 these excavations were continued under the direction of the author 5 .
The literature devoted to the history of the city is small. The results of post-war excavations have not been published in full.
Founded on the right bank of the Dniester estuary, Tire occupied a very advantageous geographical position. Scientists determine the date of the emergence of Thira differently. Some 8 - V.N. Yurgevich, E. Minns, M. Ebert, E. Diehl 7, P. Nicorescu attributed the emergence of Thira to the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. ; others 8 - E. R. Stern, A. N. Zograf, L. D. Dmitrov 9 and V. D. Blavatsky 10 believe that Tire as a city can only be talked about from the 5th century. BC e.
1 I. A. Stempkovsky. Research on the location of ancient Greek settlements. SPb., 1826, pp. 21-23; P. V. Becker. Tiras and tirits. ZOOID, vol. II, 1848, pp. 418, 419: F. K. Brun. About the location of Tiras. ZOOID, vol. III, 1853, p. 49; his own. Black Sea region, part I. Odessa, 1879, pp. 3-13.
2 E. R. Stern. About the latest excavations in Akkerman. ZOOID, vol. XXIII, 1901, pp. 33-61; his own. Excavations in Akkerman in the summer of 1912, ZOOID, vol. XXXI, 1913, pp. 92-101.
3 R. Nicorescu. Scavi e Scoperte a Tyras. "Ephemeris Dacoromana", II, 1924, p. 378-415; his own. Fouilles de Tyras. "Dacia", III-IV, 1933, p. 557-601.
4 L. D. Dmitrov. Bilgorod-Dniester archaeological expedition. AP URSR, vol. II, 1949, pp. 39-52; his own. Excavations in the city of Bilgorod-Dnistrovsky in 1947. AP URSR, vol. IV, 1952, pp. 59-64; his own. Main bags of the Izmail archaeological expedition 1949-50 pp. AP URSR, vol. V, 1955, pp. 111-123.
5 A. I. Furmanska. Archaeological monuments of Tires in the first centuries of our era. "Archaeology", vol. X, 1957, pp. 80-93; A. I. Furmanskaya and E. V. Maksimov. Excavations in Belgorod-Dnestrovsky. KSIA AN Ukrainian SSR, vol. 5, pp. 64-67; A. I. Furmanska. Excavations of Tiri in 1958 AP URSR, vol. XI, pp. 123-138.
6 T. D. Zlatkovskaya. About the initial period of the history of Tire. CA, 1959, No. 2, p. 61.
7 E. Diehl. RE, s. v. Tyras, Stuttgart, 1860.
8 T. D. Zlatkovskaya. Decree. cit., p. 61.
9 L. D. Dmitrov. Tira. “Drawings of the long-standing history of the URSR”, Kiev, 1957, p. 271.
10 V. D. Blavatsky. Process of historical development ancient states in North
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Information from ancient authors about Tire is very scarce. According to Pseudo-Skymnus (vv. 798-803): “The Tyra River, deep and abundant in pastures, provides merchants with trade in fish, and cargo ships safe swimming. On the river lies the city of the same name, Tire, founded by the Milesians.”
The latter is confirmed by the fact that the inhabitants of Tire used the Milesian calendar, preserved in inscriptions from the villages of Chobruchi and Korotnoye and almost completely coinciding with the calendar of Miletus and its colonies 11. Meanwhile, the foundation of the Milesian colonies on the western and northern coasts of the Black Sea dates back to the 7th-6th centuries. BC e., and by the end of the 6th century. BC e. the process of colonization of these shores was largely completed. Appearance large settlements on the banks of the Dniester estuary at this time is also confirmed by excavations of the Roksolan settlement 12. All this allows us to believe that Tire, like its closest neighbors - Olbia and Istria, was founded no later than the 6th century. BC e., which, however, is not yet sufficiently confirmed by archaeological data. Finds of Ionian ceramics mentioned in the literature 13 and the handle of an Ionian jug 14 from the 6th century found in 1960. BC e. only indirectly confirm the likelihood of this date.
Excavation data and random finds of coins, ancient ceramics, and sculptures make it possible to determine that in ancient times the city occupied an area of over 20 hectares. The remains of ancient Thira are located under the medieval Akkerman fortress, the fortress square and the streets closest to the fortress. The liminal part of the city was destroyed both by the waters of the estuary and by later structures. The Acropolis occupied an elevated and protected site, where a medieval fortress was later built.
The necropolis of the city has not yet been discovered.
The location of the so-called Scythian grave and the grave near the village. Salgany 15 allows us to suggest that in the first centuries AD the necropolis was located on the shore of the estuary, 1.5-2 km south-southeast of the city.
At the present stage archaeological research It is still difficult to reconstruct the general socio-economic history of the city. In this work we will try, on the basis of literary information and new archaeological material, to outline only general outline the course of historical development of the city.
The early stage of the city’s history (VI-V centuries BC) is little known. Building remains of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. not found yet. Currently, we have only isolated finds of things from the 6th - early 5th centuries. BC e. and a relatively large amount of material from the second half of the 5th century. BC e. These are predominantly black-glazed and red-figured Attic ceramics, indicating ties between Thira and Athens, which especially intensified at the end of the 5th century. BC e. It is unlikely that the expansion of these ties should be explained by the results of Pericles’ expedition to Pontus and the inclusion of Thira among the members of the Athenian Maritime League, assumed by some scientists. The latter is generally very doubtful.
Mr. Black Sea region. Sat. "Problems of History Northern Black Sea region in the ancient era", M., 1959, pp. 13, 14.
11 V. N. Yurgevich. Opened in 1867 in the village. Chobruchi Greek inscription of the ancient city of Thira. ZOOID, vol. VI, 1867, p. 15. V. V. Latyshev. About the calendars of Olbia, Tira and Chersonese Tauride. “ΠΟΝΤΙΚΑ”, St. Petersburg, 1909, pp. 25-40; F. Bilabel. Die ionische Kolonisation. Leipzig, 1920, S. 70.
12 M. S. Sinitsyn. Roksolan settlement according to excavations of 1958-1960. Report read on March 18, 1961 at the Scientific Session of Odessa State University and Odessa State Archaeological Museum, dedicated to the results of field archaeological research in 1960.
13 E. R. Stern. Excavations in Akkerman in the summer of 1912, ZOOID, XXXI, p. 100; R. Nicorescu. Scavi e Scoperte..., p. 383-384.
14 Funds of the Institute of Archeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, inv. No. 328.
15 L. D. Dmitrov. Main bags of the Izmail archaeological expedition 1949-50 pp. page 117.
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It is not easy to illuminate the question of the nature of the economy of Thira at this stage, since clothing material is almost completely absent. One can only agree with the assumption made by T.D. Zlatkovskaya 16 about the agricultural nature of the economy of Tira in the early times and the opinion of A.N. Zograf that the economy of Tira “as an established urban organism was built primarily on agriculture and trade in grain” 17 . Indeed, the typology of the early coins of Tyra with the image of Demeter, ears of corn, wreaths of ears of ears testifies to the development of agriculture, images of a bridled horse and a bull indicate the important importance of cattle breeding. Considering the location of Thira between Olbia and the Western Pontic cities, the mutual connections of which through coastal navigation are confirmed by a number of monuments, it seems possible to assume that intermediary trade also played a certain role in the city’s economy at this early stage.
Of great interest is the question of the relationship between Tira and the population of the Dniester region. The results of excavations suggest that by the time of the arrival of Greek settlers, the middle and partly upper Dniester region was inhabited by a settled agricultural population. Local settlements of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. on the Lower Dniester we don’t know. The picture of the settlement of tribes in this part of the Black Sea region becomes clearer only from the 4th century. BC e. When studying the settlements of the Middle Dniester region, no monuments of ancient culture of the early period were discovered until recently. And only recently, in 1958-1960. during excavations of an agricultural settlement near the village. In Ivan Pusta Melnitsa, Podolsk district, Ternopil region, O. D. Ganina discovered a small number of fragments of amphorae from the second half of the 6th - early 5th centuries. BC e. It is also necessary to take into account individual finds of ancient material from the mounds of Western Podolia 18 and southern Moldova 19 .
If at this early stage, in terms of its size and population, Thira was a city less significant than its closest neighbors Olbia and Istria, then, undoubtedly, the initial stage of its history prepared the flowering of the city’s economy and culture at the subsequent, second stage of its development (V- III centuries BC). Excavations in recent years make it possible to trace the growth of the urban area from the end of the 5th to the beginning of the 4th century. BC e. Opened basements of 4th century buildings on the fortress square. BC e. indicate the inclusion of this square into the city in the V-IV centuries. BC e. The city was located in a terrace-like manner, with transverse streets running along the estuary, and longitudinal streets running perpendicularly. On this square in the 4th century BC. e. public buildings were located. The same type of plans for the basement floors of the buildings, separated by a small alley (1.60 m wide), the large dimensions of the premises themselves allow us to consider them as public buildings. Construction in Tyre, as well as in Olbia, is characterized by the construction of basement floors. The walls of the basements were built on leveled rock, and special pits were cut out in the mainland, the walls of which were closely adjacent to the rubble masonry of the basements, lined with slabs from the inside. The slabs are laid on clay mortar, almost dry. The walls of these premises are distinguished by their monumentality (the thickness of the external walls is 0.80 m, and the internal ones - more than 1.0 m) and the carefulness of the square masonry from well-hewn rectangular slabs.
Epigraphic monuments of this time allow us to judge state system, economic relations and cultural life of the city.
Inscription from the end of the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. 20 is a decree of the council and the people
16 T. D. Zlatkovskaya. Decree. cit., p. 66 seq.
17 A. N. Zograf. Antique coins. MIA, No. 16, M., 1949, p. 111.
18 T. Sulimirski, Scytowie na Zachodniem Podolu. Lwow, 1936, str. 119.
19 A. I. Melyukova. Monuments of the Scythian time of the forest-steppe middle Dniester region. MIA, No. 64, M., 1958, p. 90.
20 P. O. Karyshkovsky. Materials for the collection of ancient inscriptions of Sarmatia and Taurida. VDI, 1959, No. 4, p. 112.
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th meeting about awarding a certain citizen of Tyre with a golden wreath and then crowning him during all the festivities together with other “benefactors” for his valor and benevolence towards the people. Along with the council and the people, the college of archons and agonothetes are also mentioned, that is, the authorities and officials usual for the Greek polis. This inscription, along with another honorary inscription from the end of the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC e. 21 indicates a further increase in property inequality, the identification of wealthy citizens who have provided “good deeds” to the city.
By the second half of the 4th century. BC e. refers to the beginning of the minting of the city of Thira’s own coin. Unlike Olbia, but like most other cities of the Black Sea region, the first coins of Tire were minted from silver 22. By the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd century. BC e. golden staters of the Lysimakhov type appear, which indicates, in the opinion of A. N. Zograf 23, an attempt by Tira to enter the arena of broader trade relations. This assumption of A. N. Zograf is fully confirmed by the mentioned inscription, which attests to the connections of Tyra with Olbia, Cyzicus and Rhodes.
Agriculture remains the mainstay of the city's economy. The emergence of most settlements in the territory adjacent to the city dates back to this time: near the present village. Peremoyashoe, near the village. Shvdenne-Saria, Semenovka. A number of settlements arise south of Thira near the village. Shabo, Budaki and other places. According to intelligence materials from employees of the Odessa Museum 24, the settlements on the western bank of the Dniester estuary date back to the 4th-2nd centuries. BC e.; Of these, the settlement at the station is of greatest interest. Bugaz (Zatoka). Settlement IV-II centuries. BC e. was also discovered near a stone quarry, between Belgorod-Dnestrovsky and the village. Salgany. Antique ceramics are found along the entire coast of the estuary. The appearance of these settlements indicates the expansion of the city's agricultural district, the increased development of agriculture and, perhaps, even its specialization.
A number of data indicate the development of various crafts. Near the suburb of Peremozhny, ceramic kilns were discovered in the pre-war years; amphoras with the mark ΔΙΟΝΥΣΙΟ[Υ] on the handles were found in them. Molds for making terracotta have been found in small quantities.
Single casting molds, copper and iron slags indicate the development of metalworking craft. Finds of spindle whorls indicate weaving craft. The wide scope of urban construction suggests the existence of local stonemasons and builders.
As we noted above, by the end of the 6th - beginning of the 5th century. BC e. The beginning of economic relations between Tira and the population of the Dniester region should be attributed. Treasure of metal objects V--IV centuries. BC e. (helmets, knemids, lamps), found in Olonesti, near the station. Bessarabskaya (kept in the museum in Chisinau), probably came here also through Tira, like earlier objects. In the IV-III centuries. BC e. these connections become more regular and intense. Antique ceramics appear in settlements (for example, at the Sakharnyanskoe settlement, at settlements near the villages of Vykhvatintsy, Golerkany) 25. At the Butuchen settlement, Orhei district, at a settlement near this settlement 26 and near the village. Roksolana, located on the opposite bank, almost opposite Thira, coins of Thira of the 4th-3rd centuries were found. BC e. 27
21 A. I. Furmanskaya. New epigraphic monument from Thira. SA, 1960, No. 4, pp. 173-179.
22 A. N. Zograf. Coins of Tyra, pp. 19-26.
23 Ibid., p. 27.
24 I. B. Kleiman, K. I. Revenko. Archaeological guards at the entrance to the birch of the Dniester estuary. MAPP, c. II, Odessa, 1959, p. 118.
25 A. I. Melyukova. Decree. cit., p. 95 seq.
26 L. L. Polevoy kindly informed us about the finds of these coins in 1959.
27 A. G. Salnikov. Before learning about the trade ties of ancient settlements on the banks of the Dniester estuary from Greece in the VI-II centuries. BC e. MAPP, c. III, Odessa, 1960, p. 31.
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Among the coins of Istria, Olbia, Chersonesos, Panticapaeum, found at the Kamensky settlement, there was also a coin of Thira from the second half of the 4th century. BC e. 28
The growth of the city's agricultural district and the established regular connections with the population of the Middle Dniester region provided the economic basis for the development of broad connections in Tira. Thira continued to trade with Athens. At the end of the 5th and during the 4th century. BC e. red-figure and black-glazed pottery arrives in Tire; and in the 3rd century. BC e. Attic imports are replaced by vessels decorated with paintings applied with liquefied yellow clay and white paint on a dark background, manufactured in the cities of Asia Minor. Thira traded with Thasos, Heraclea, Sinope, Rhodes, Cyzicus, Cnidus, Olbia, Chersonesus and, apparently, with the cities of Bosporus, in which silver coins of Thira were found 29; in addition, single fragments of Bosporan tiles were found in Tire. The quantity of Thassian imports in Tire and the surrounding settlements is not very large; It dates back to the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. 30 The importation of Heraclean amphorae dates back to the same time.
Chersonese stamps in Tyre date mainly to the 3rd century. BC e. Imports of Sinopian tiles, architectural details and amphorae date mainly from the 4th to 2nd centuries. BC e., and imports from Rhodes, exceeding imports from other centers, date back to the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC e. Many wheel-shaped stamps of unknown origin were also found in Tire.
Coins from Istria, Olbia, Vol. Coins of Tyra IV-III centuries. BC e. found in Chersonesos. Inscription from the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd century. BC e. from Thira indicates that at the end of the stage under consideration, Thira was directly connected with Cyzicus; the narrowing of its economic ties begins, apparently, at the beginning or even in the middle of the 2nd century. BC e.
The dating of the Kosian brands found in Tire is not precisely established; according to E.M. Shtaerman, Thira maintained close ties with Kos in all periods of antiquity 31, however, the number of Kos stamps in Tire is small and, judging by the stamps, the connections of Thira with Kos date mainly back to the time of late Hellenism (II century BC . e.).
The culture of Thira at this time can be judged by urban construction, terracotta products, single sculptures and coins.
Images on coins 32 and individual epigraphic monuments of this time allow us to draw a conclusion about the spread of certain cults. Of the ancient deities, images of Demeter are most often found on the coins of Thera. Often there are also images of Apollo, Dionysus, and Hercules. The existence of the cult of Apollo the physician in Tire is evidenced by an inscription from the 3rd century. BC BC - dedication to Apollo the physician 33. Coins of Thera were also found in the main centers of the cult of Achilles Pontarch 34 (on the island of Lovka and on Tendra). Late Hellenistic coins indicate the spread of the cults of Asclepius and Hermes in the city. The herm of Priapus 35, the patron saint of viticulture and gardening, was also found in Tire.
Excavation data and numismatic materials from the last two centuries BC, preceding the Getae invasion, reflect the gradual increase in the economic crisis of Thira.
In the II century. BC e. reconstructions of buildings that have fallen into disrepair are observed; in this case, the remains of old walls are used, to which new ones are attached. Rebuild
28 B. N. Grakov. Kamensk settlement on the Dnieper. MIA, No. 36, M., 1954, p. 146, table. VIII, 6.
29 A. N. Zograf. Coins of Tyra, page 57.
30 Excavations by A. G. Salnikov at a settlement near the village. Shvdenne-Saria in 1960
31 E. M. Shtaerman. Decree. cit., p. 44.
32 A. N. Zograf. Coins of Tyra, p. 44 ff.
33 P. O. Karyshkovsky. Materials for the collection of ancient inscriptions..., p. 116.
34 A. N. Zograf. Finds of coins in places of supposed ancient sanctuaries on the Black Sea coast. CA, VII, 1941, p. 153.
35 R. Nicorescu. Scavi e Scoperte..., p. 382, fig. 7.
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Basements are also being built. The masonry of the walls is careless and consists of poorly processed stones of different sizes. The horizontality of the masonry rows is not maintained in places. Small rubble stone, and sometimes pieces of marble, are also wedged between the large slabs. The deterioration of masonry technique should also be explained by the fact that the masonry itself was not given much importance: the walls of rich houses were covered with painted plaster. Excavations in 1960 uncovered the premises of a rich house. On its floor there is a collapse of the roof, consisting mainly of Sinopian tiles of the 3rd-2nd centuries. and single copies dating back to the 4th century. BC e., under them lay pieces of painted plaster with ornaments: plant and zoomorphic. On some fragments the painting reproduces the pattern of marble with veins; others are covered with dark paint. A similar wall painting was discovered in Olbia in 1960. Similar wall painting is known in Pergamon, Priene, Delos, Alexandria in the 3rd-2nd centuries, in the Bosporus (Pantikapaea, Phanagoria) 36 and corresponds to the so-called second Pompeian style.
In recent years, cellars with amphorae buried in them have been discovered and numerous fragments of amphorae from the late Hellenistic period have been collected. Rhodian ones predominate, Sinopean ones are less numerous; Although Sinopian tiles predominate among the imported tiles, fragments of Kos amphorae are also found. The latter were found together with fragments of light clay and red clay amphoras with double-barreled handles from the centers of the Southern Black Sea region. The composition of the ceramics is dominated by fragments of black-glazed and brown-glazed painted vessels from Asia Minor, “Megaran” bowls and vessels of Olbian production.
In the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. Tira's circle of external relations is narrowing. Nevertheless, the decree of the city of Tomy of the 2nd-1st centuries still dates back to this time. BC e. in honor of the citizen of Thira Nile, testifying to the connections between Olbia and Tom and the intermediary role of Thira in the trade of these cities. In the destroyed buildings of the late Hellenistic period, coins from the cities of Amis and Thira of the Mithridatic period (120-63 BC) are found. The typology of one of the series of coins of Thera of this time, as noted by A. N. Zograf, coincides with the typology of groups of coins of the last Mithridates minted Panticapaeum 37 . This circumstance, together with the mentioned finds in Tire of Amis coins of the same time, may indicate the subordination of Tire to Mithridates VI Eupator. Along with the reduction in trade links, materials from this time reflect the presence of local handicraft production in Tire. Thus, among the fragments of ceramics, one can distinguish locally produced vessels made according to the late Hellenistic type: spherical bowls, two-handled jugs, with the use of polishing in surface treatment. Copper and iron slags and isolated metal objects are found in small quantities.
A figurine made from the horn of a red deer native to the Dniester region, depicting a woman in a local pointed headdress, indicates the presence of local bone carvers in the city.
Particularly noteworthy in the late Hellenistic complexes is the abundance of molded ceramics of Getic forms: Dacian vases, one-handled mugs, bowls with an almost black or grayish-brown burnishing, while early molded ceramics of the late 6th–5th centuries. BC e., close to Scythian forms, very little has been found. The appearance of Getic forms of ceramics, close to those found in the settlements of the Dniester region, dates back to the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. Similar forms of vessels are known in Olbia, on Kozyrka (Getic circles), on the settlements of the Lower Dnieper in Zolotaya Balka, Gavrilovna and even on the settlements of the Middle Dnieper. The molded ceramics from Thira are closest to the ceramics of the settlements of Podutsavje.
38 ADJ, p. 119, seq., tab. XXXVIII - XLI; V. D. Blavatsky, Phanagorian wall painting. MIA, No. 57, M., 1957, p. 168 ff.
37 A. N. Zograf. Coins of Tyra, page 30.
46
If the decline in trade, the reduction in trade relations, the cessation of life in all nearby settlements indicate an economic crisis experienced by the city from the middle or from the second half of the 2nd century. BC e., then destroyed and unrestored buildings, the fill of which is dominated by materials of the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e., indicate particularly difficult times experienced by the city during this period. The crisis of the city was associated with the general crisis of the Hellenistic world. Two decades after the defeat of Mithridates VI Eupator, Tyre, like Olbia, was attacked by the Getae. The destruction of Thira by the Getae around the middle of the 1st century. BC e. The first period of its history ends.
The history of Thira in subsequent centuries is characterized by the political, economic and cultural influence of Rome. Judging by the data of excavations in recent years (1958-1960), the city recovered relatively quickly after the invasion of the Getae. Ceramic material - amphorae from the turn of our era, fragments of vessels of the terra nigra, terra sigillata type with stamps of the first half of the 1st century. n. e. Asia Minor and Gallic workshops, similar to those found in Olbia, suggest a rapid restoration of urban life at the beginning of our era. The restoration of the city begins with the redevelopment of the urban area. The destroyed Hellenistic buildings on the first terrace are being filled up. A thick layer of fill (about 3 m) underlies residential and economic structures of the Roman era. Excavated residential buildings outbuildings, street, drains give an idea of the city's layout, landscaping and house construction.
Rich houses of this time consisted of five or six rooms and one or two courtyards. The average size of buildings is about 120 square meters. m. In plan, they represent a rectangle elongated from north to south, the long walls of which also served as retaining walls of the terraces. Room sizes 15-25 sq. m, courtyards - 11-20 sq. m. The premises did not communicate with each other, and had access to the courtyard, and from there to the street. The courtyards were most often paved with flat stones; occasionally the pavement was corrected with fragments of the walls of amphorae. In the courtyards, stone cisterns with gutters were built to collect rainwater and drains connected to street drains.
The masonry of the walls indicates the decline of masonry and construction. The walls are built on clay from uncut stones of different sizes. The foundations of the walls are made of large stone slabs, selected from destroyed buildings of an earlier time. The floors are earthen, the roofs are gable and tiled. As in buildings of the Hellenistic period, reconstructions and often redevelopments are observed here (a home altar was discovered in one of the rooms of the western building). Found in a clay bedding under a building of the 2nd-3rd centuries. n. e. Hadrian's coins suggest that such a restructuring was carried out in the 20-40s. II century n. e. There is a gradual deterioration in wall masonry techniques.
The street of the 2nd-3rd centuries is well preserved. n. e., paved with large rectangular slabs, along the edges of which small stones and even fragments of ceramics are laid. The length of the preserved part of the street is 27 m, width 2.5 m. Under the street there was a drainage canal, the walls of which consisted of large vertical slabs, its bed was lined with the same slabs.
There are much more epigraphic monuments of Thira in the first centuries AD, in comparison with the previous period (37 inscriptions). Some inscriptions from Olbia and Chersonesos are also of interest for the history of Thira, further illuminating the relationship of these cities with Thira.
The decree in honor of Cocceus (181 AD 38) mentions the usual magistrates and bodies of city government: archons, council and popular assembly. From another
38 IPE, I 2, no.
47
document-inscription from the Short (201 AD 39) we learn about the actual restriction by Rome of the rights of city government. Confirming the previous custom of exempting the city community of Tirits from duties, the inscription states that newly admitted citizens will enjoy these privileges only if the rulers of the province confirm their citizenship rights by a special decree. From these inscriptions it is clear that the main positions were occupied by the rich Romanized part of the Greek population and the Romans. The secretary of the council (bule) in 181 was the Roman Valerius Rufus, and the eponymous archon in 201 was the Roman P. Aelius Calpurnius.
The inscription from Korotny, like another poorly preserved inscription from the beginning of the 3rd century. n. e., found in Tire itself 40, is a message from the Roman governor of the province, which talks about trading ships, duties, countermarks on coins; "barbarians" are also mentioned. These inscriptions are important in assessing the importance of trade in the economy of the city in the 2nd-3rd centuries. And. e. In addition, they testify to the attention that Rome paid to the coastal Greek cities, including Tire, which economically and strategically played an important role in the foreign policy of the Roman Empire, in its expansion to the East, which began from the time of Nero. These cities served as strongholds on the borders of the empire in the fight against the barbarian tribes advancing from the East. The inclusion of Thira in the sphere of political influence of Rome is confirmed by coin finds 41.
It should, however, be recognized that the established political relations with Rome were favorable to the restoration of the life of the city at the beginning of our era.
57 AD e., as can be seen from the above inscriptions, is considered the first year of the new chronology of Tyre. After the Crimean expedition of Plautius Silvanus, Thira's dependence on Rome intensified. During the reign of Domitian, regular minting of copper coins was resumed in Tire, in appearance no different from the usual coins of the cities that were part of the Roman Empire. The imperial coinage of Tyre continued with occasional interruptions until the reign of Severus Alexander.
A number of Latin inscriptions from the beginning of the 2nd century. n. e. from Thira and marks on the tiles confirm the presence in the city of Roman garrisons of parts of the I Italian, XI Claudian and V Macedonian legions 42, long before its inclusion in the Roman province of Moesia Inferior. A papyrus dating to the end of Trajan's reign states that two horsemen of cohort I Hispanorum Veterana 43 were sent to Tire as part of the Roman garrison stationed in the city. However, the city is described as being extra provinciam. Thus, Thira formally remained an independent city for a long time and was included in the province only under Antoninus Pius, which is confirmed by both the inscription from Korotnoye and the coins of Thira 44 . It remained part of the province until the end of the reign of Severus, when the Roman garrison was withdrawn from the city.
II century and the first decades of the 3rd century. n. e. characterized by a new short-lived boom in the city's economy. Trade, apparently, occupies a significant place, and not only intermediary between the Western Pontic cities and Olbia, but with the population of the Dniester region. The economic ties of the Western Pontic cities with Olbia and the role of Thira in strengthening these ties are attested to by the Olbian decree of the 2nd - early 3rd century. n. e. in honor of Theocles, son of Satpra 45, and numismatically
39 Ibid., No. 4.
40 P. Nicorescu. Scavi e Scoperte..., p. 394-396; P. O. Karyshkovsky. Materials for the collection of ancient inscriptions..., p. 115.
41 A. N. Zograf. Coins of Tyra, page 31.
42 E. V. Maksimov. New monument of the first centuries AD in Tyre. KSI A AN Ukrainian SSR, 5, 1955, pp. 80-82.
43 G. Cantacuzene. Un papyrus latin relatif â la défense du Bas Danube. "Revue historique du Sud-Est européen", V, no. 1-3, 1928, p. 38 words.
44 A. N. Zograf. Coins of Tyra, page 15.
45 IPE, I 2, no. 40.
48
with our finds. Olbian coins from the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd centuries are found in Tire. n. e. The importance of Thira as an intermediary trading post and the existence of a land route for the first time in the century AD are confirmed by the famous itinerarium 46 (road), inscribed in paint on a warrior’s leather shield, found in Dura - Europos. It marks the crossing of the Danube, then the road through Thira to Olbia and Chersonesus.
Connections with Chersonese are indicated by a coin of Chersonese from the 3rd century found in Tire. n. e. 47 and a fragment of a marble slab from Chersonesos with the inscription 51 [έν]/Τύρα τα [πόλει]; according to V.V. Latyshev, this is part of a decree drawn up in honor of a person who had some connection with Tire 48. Another fragment of an inscription with similar content was found in Chersonesus after the war 49. Some confirmation of these connections can be found in the building of the 2nd - early 3rd century. n. e. red clay pots, decorated with floral patterns and with Greek inscriptions in white paint πεΐνε εύφραίνou, considered products of Chersonese workshops 50.
The connections of Thera with the Western Pontic cities, in addition to the above-mentioned decree in honor of Theocles, are evidenced by the tombstone of a citizen of Thera, found in Tomi or in ancient Odessa 51, and some features common to the coins of Thera and these cities, for example, signs of value on the coins. Along with goods from Western Pontic cities, coins of the Thracian kings also arrived in Tire. The general picture of the external relations of Tire in the first centuries of our era is complemented by a rare coin found in Tire, according to the definition of P. O. Karyshkovsky, minted by the Thracian king Rimitalko, from the time of Augustus. An inscription from the 2nd century also speaks of the significant role of trade in the city’s economy. n. e., found on the fortress square, i.e. between the fortress and the estuary. It talks about payment for freight of certain goods delivered by barbarians, and about some restrictions for foreigners 52.
At the turn of the century and in the first centuries of our era, Pergamon red-glazed ceramics (cups, dishes) and narrow-necked amphorae continued to arrive in Tire in large quantities, apparently originating from the centers of the southern Black Sea region; many of them are stamped and inscribed in red paint. A lot of such amphorae are also found in Olbia and Tanais, and the same marks are also found. Knidian red-glazed pottery was also imported to Tire. The connection with Egypt is indicated by an Alexandrian coin of imperial times 53, amulets, scarabs and other examples of small Egyptian plastic art. These finds can be compared with the dedicatory inscription found in Tyre to Serapis and Isis 54. Based on the Olbian Decree in honor of Theocles, it can be assumed that Tire in the first centuries of our era was connected with all the cities mentioned in this inscription. Connections with Miletus in the first centuries AD are evidenced by a tombstone found on the Acropolis of Athens with the inscription: “Lafaeia the Tyrian, Hermeus son of Eros, Milesian.” 55
In monetary circulation, along with local copper, Roman silver denarii were in circulation; the earliest of them date back to the 30s of the 1st century. BC e.-
46 F. Cumont. Fragment de bouclier portant une liste d'etapes. "Syria", VI, 1925, p. 11 words
47 E. P. Stern. Excavations in Akkerman in the summer of 1912, pp. 96-97. The coin was incorrectly dated to the 1st century. n. e.; the dating was clarified by V. A. Anokhin.
48 V.V. Latyshev. Greek and Latin inscriptions found in Southern Russia in 1901 IAC, c. 3, 1902, p. 23.
49 G. D. Belov, S. F. Strzheletsky and A. L. Yakobson. Excavations 1941, 1947 and 1948 MIA, No. 34, M.-L., 1953, p. 194. fig. 43; report by E.I. Solomonik at the Academic Council of the Institute of Archeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR in January 1960. The text of the inscription was restored by E.I. Solomonik.
50 Report of K.K. Kostsyushko-Valyuzhinich on his excavations in Chersonesus. UAC for 1896. St. Petersburg, 1898, p. 187, fig. 567.
51 P. O. Karyshkovsky Materials for the collection of ancient inscriptions..., p. 120, No. 9.
52 IPE, I 2, no. 3.
53 A. N. Zograf. Coins of Tyra, page 60.
54 IPE, I 2, no. 5.
55 P. O. Karyshkovsky. Materials for the collection of ancient inscriptions..., p. 121.
49
coinage of Mark Antony for the Roman legions. The three treasures found in Tire included Roman silver coins and copper coins of city minting. A treasure of the same composition was found in 1949 between Ovidiopol and Roksolany 56 . The presence in the hoards of coins minted over two and three centuries indicates that these coins did not go out of circulation for a long time. The number of Roman coins in the treasures is small (for example, in the treasure found in 1958 there were 31 silver denarii and 150 Tira coins).
As in the previous period, in Roman times the leading place in the city’s economy was occupied by arable farming and viticulture. Evidence of this continues to be the images on coins and especially the countermarks on the coins of Domitian and Severus Alexander in the form of an ear of corn and a bunch of grapes. Materials from the study of settlements near the villages of Mologi and Chairy of the 2nd-early 3rd centuries. n. e. indicate the expansion of the city's agricultural district at this time. In the city itself, grain grinders and a large number of large amphorae, more than 1 m high and about 2 m in circumference, with burnt grains of wheat, millet and barley, are found in houses. Fishing was also of considerable importance.
We have little material to characterize the city's handicraft production. One ceramic furnace was found in Tire, and fragments of rejected amphorae were found. Copper and iron slags are found in the layer of this time. Few metal products were found: a small number of bronze brooches of the 2nd-3rd centuries. n. e., single fragments of mirrors of the Sarmatian type; from household items - copper keys, iron locks, clamps, door handles, nails, knives; of the weapons - one iron spear tip. There are also items made of bone: linings from knife handles, styles, needles.
There is every reason to believe that Thira was connected with the settlements of the Dniester region in the first centuries of our era. Not far from Tira, near the village. A number of settlements were discovered in Tudorovo, where a large number of amphorae fragments were found. Researchers classify the settlements as monuments of the Chernyakhov culture. Red-glazed pottery was found in the Vokan Sarmatian burial ground 57. These are small one-handed and two-handed pots, no different from those produced in Tire. Light clay narrow-necked amphorae are also found in the Dniester region. All these products, found in the settlements of the Chernyakhov culture in the first centuries of our era, were undoubtedly brought there directly from Tire.
Coins of Thira from Roman times indicate the veneration of the cults of Hercules and Dionysus - the main patron deities of the imperial house of Severus. The cults of Cybele and Serapis became widespread. Finds of coins of Tira on Berezan, where in the first centuries of our era the sanctuary of Achilles Pontarch was located, indicate the veneration of this deity in the city.
For the study of the culture of Thira of this period, material is provided by objects of art found during excavations, mainly small sculptures, such as the herm of Dionysus, a figurine of Hygiene, part of the torso of Athena (?), a sculptural group - two female figures sitting in the pose of Cybele, a slab with the image of Artemis the huntress . The last two finds have close analogies in the sites of the Western Black Sea region. The crude image of Artemis 58 on a marble slab is reminiscent of reliefs depicting this goddess found at Charax 59 in supposed sanctuaries of the Thracian gods. Considering the composition of the legions stationed in the city, one can
56 P. O. Karyshkovsky. Notes on the numismatics of the ancient Black Sea region. VDI, 1960, No. 3, p. 134.
57 G. B. Fedorov. On the issue of Sarmatian culture in Moldova. “News of the Moldavian branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences”, Chisinau, 1956, p. 60.
58 P. Nicorescu. Scavi e Scoperte..., p. 393, fig. 8.
59 M. I. Rostovtsev. Sanctuary of the Thracian gods and inscriptions of the beneficiaries in Ai-Todor. IAC, v. 40, St. Petersburg, 1911, pp. 1-42, table. V, 13.
50
to think that such a sanctuary existed in Tyre. The figurine of a foot warrior, probably depicting one of the representatives of the local tribes, was executed in the manner of late antique art and is distinguished by the incorrect proportions of the human figure, schematization and primitiveness of execution 60.
The list of sculpture monuments would be incomplete without recalling large sizes statue of a Roman legionnaire of the 2nd century. n. e., found in the estuary before the revolution and stored in the Odessa Archaeological Museum.
The sculptures found in Tire testify to three trends in the art of Tire in Roman times: archaic Greek, local art of the Greek cities of the Northern and North-Western Black Sea region and the highly barbarized late antique art of the periphery of the ancient world.
As noted above, from the IV-III centuries. BC e. Various forms of molded pottery of the Getaean appearance appeared on the territory of the city. The quantity of this ceramics increases towards the turn of our era. It seems to us that the spread of this ceramics was associated with a change in the ethnic composition of the city’s population, which occurred in connection with the movements of tribes inhabiting the territory of the Northern and Northwestern Black Sea region. There is very little written evidence of these changes in Tire. Ovid, exiled to Tomi, in his Tristia (V, 7, 10) depicts a picture of city life, perhaps with some exaggeration: “although Greeks and Getae are mixed on this coast, it still borrows more from the non-peaceful Getae. More Sarmatian and Getian people are moving on horseback up and down the streets.” A similar picture could obviously be observed in Tyre, as one of the cities closest to Tom. In Tire, as in Olbia and other cities, wealthy townspeople became related to noble representatives of the tribes living near the city. On the already mentioned tombstone, found in Tomi or in ancient Odessa, the names of the parents who erected the tombstone for their son were preserved. Father's name is Aurelius Heraclides, mother's name is Madagava. The mother's name is non-Greek, B. N. Grakov finds it possible to attribute it to the Sarmatian 61.
An idea of the ethnic composition of the population of Tire in the first centuries AD is given by the decree in honor of Cocceus (181) 62 . It lists the names of four archons and seventeen witnesses. Most of them have Greek names. Romanized Greek names make up more than a quarter of the names mentioned in the inscription. There are some non-Greek names; some of them are Thracian. However, the main, predominant part of the population was still Greeks.
The molded pottery of the first centuries AD differs from the pottery of the previous period. Its forms are close to Sarmatian dishes, and certain types, according to the definition of M. A. Tikhanova, are similar to the vessels found in the Upper Dniester region. The kitchen utensils are all molded. The use of this ceramics, as well as the naturalization of the entire economy at the end of this period, are signs of the Russification of the city, observed in all cities of the Northern Black Sea region. Abundant traces of fires, traced during the excavations, indicate the difficult fate that befell the city. Coins of Severus Alexander with countermarks found in excavated buildings indicate the time of the death of Thira - the 40s of the 3rd century. n. e. Most likely, the city was destroyed by the Goths.
Thus, the ancient cities of the Northern Black Sea region, some earlier, others a little later, shared the common fate of the entire ancient world, which was unable to resist the onslaught of barbarian tribes. However, the economic ties of Tira with the Geto-Thracian world could not but affect the acceleration of the socio-economic development of the latter, and the strengthening of the process of class formation among them.
60 A. I. Furmanskaya. New monuments of sculpture from Thira. KSIA, c. 10, 1960, pp. 78-83.
61 B. N. Grakov. Materials on the history of Scythia in Greek inscriptions of the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor. VDI, 1939, No. 3, p. 312. This inscription was republished by P. O. Karyshkov “k and m - Materials for the collection of ancient inscriptions..., p. 120, No. 9. Discrepancy in the mother’s name: Μοίόαγαΰα-Μαγαόϊυα in There is probably a typo in the latest edition.
62 IPE, I 2, no.
Prepared according to the edition:
Antique city/ USSR Academy of Sciences. Institute of Archeology. - M.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1963.Ancient Thira (Tera) is an ancient city located on the steep rocky cape of Mesa Vouno, at an altitude of 396 m above sea level. The city received its name in honor of the mythical ruler of the island of Tiras and was inhabited by Dorians since the 9th century BC. and existed until 726 AD.
The ruins of the ancient city were discovered in 1895 by the German archaeologist Friedrich von Hiller. Systematic excavations were carried out here until 1904 and were discovered most of residential buildings and cemetery of ancient Thira. Excavations resumed again under the auspices of the Archaeological Society of Athens between 1961 and 1982. Then an ancient necropolis was discovered on the slopes of Sellad.
Most of the ruins of the ancient city date back to the Hellenistic era, but there are also remains of Roman and Byzantine buildings. Of the most important architectural monuments discovered during excavations, it is worth highlighting the ancient Agora, which was located almost in the center of the city. Temples and public buildings were concentrated here. In the southwestern part of the Agora is the Royal Gallery in the Doric style, built during the reign of Julius Caesar (1st century AD). The Temple of Artemis, carved right into the rock (late 4th - early 3rd century BC), is also impressive. Various inscriptions and symbols of the gods (the eagle of Zeus, the lion of Apollo and the dolphins of Poseidon) are carved on the rock. Also discovered on the territory of the ancient city were the temple of Dionysius (3rd century BC) and the sanctuary of Apollo (6th century BC). Of particular interest is the ancient theater, built during the Ptolemaic dynasty (3rd century BC). Initially, the theater had an orchestra pit, due to which, during its reconstruction in the 1st century AD, the stage was enlarged. Also notable are such ancient buildings as the Roman baths, Byzantine walls, the Church of St. Stephen (built on the ruins of the early Christian temple of St. Michael the Archangel) and the Ancient Necropolis.
Archaeological excavations ancient settlement were of great historical significance. In addition to beautiful architectural structures, many valuable artifacts were also found that perfectly illustrate the life of the ancient city in its various aspects. Today, the territory of Ancient Thira is open to visitors. After viewing the architectural sights, you can also admire the beautiful panoramic views, which open from the top of the cliff.
Turaev. Decree. cit., volume 2, p. 14
Dhorm E. Les peuples issues de japhet d "apres le chapitre X de la Genese - Syria, 1932, T13, p 36, 46
Tyloch W. Le probleme de Tarsis la lumiere de la philology et de l"exegese // Actes du deuxieme congress international d"etudes des cultures de la Mediterranee Occidental. Alger, 1978, p 50
Tsirkin Yu. B. Phoenician culture in Spain, M, GRVL, 1976, p. 9-18
Pericot L. Historia de Espana, t I, Barcelona, 1965, p 179-180
Tsirkin. Phoenician culture in Spain. Decree. cit., p. 20-24
Strabo. Decree. cit., book III, chapter 2, 9; Diodorus Siculus. Decree. cit., book V, 36, 1-3
Hennich R. Unknown lands, vol. 1, M, 1961, p. 120; Tsirkin. Phoenician culture in Spain. Decree. op. With. 18
Almagro M. A proposito de la fecha de las fibulas de Huelva - Ampurias, t 19-20, 1957-1958, p 207
Strabo. Decree. cit., book III, chapter 2, 9
Tsirkin. From Canaan to Carthage. Decree. cit., p. 153
Bunners. Ibid, p 88
Galling K. Der. Weg der Phonizier nach Tarsis // ZDPV, 1972, Bd 88, p. 7
Negbi O. Early Phoenician Presence in the Mediterranean Islands // American journal of Archaeology, 1992, V 96, p 606-609
Doumet C., Kawakabani I. Les tombes de Rachidieh: remarques sur les contacts internationaux et le commerce phenicien au VIII e siecle av. J. - C. // Actes du III congress international des etudes pheniciennes et puniques. Tunis, 1995, p. 391
Dyakonov I.M. Phrygian language. - Ancient languages of Asia Minor, M, 1980, p. 260-263
McQueen J. G. The Hittites and their contemporaries in Asia Minor, M, Nauka, 1983, p. 54
Barnett R.D. Phrygia and the Peoples of Anatolia in the Iron Age // CAH, 1975, V. II, 2, p 422
Weiss G. History of civilization. Decree. cit., T1, p. 291-292
Iliad, XI, 632
Diodorus Siculus. Decree. cit., book 13, 57, 58 and book V, 17, 3, 3
Neukirchen H. Pirates. Kyiv, ((~~Press of Ukraine~~)), 1992, p. 24-25
The Ancient Near East in Pictures (ANET). Relating to the Old Testament, by James B. Pritchard, Princetown, University Press, 1969, p. 318
Dyakonov I.M. Asia Minor and Armenia around 600 BC. e. and northern campaigns of the Babylonian kings // Bulletin ancient history, 1981, No. 2, p. 50
Weiss. Decree. cit., volume 1, p. 302
Bauer G. M. Ancient Dedan. Archaeological and epigraphic monuments // Red Sea Notes, I, M, 1994
World history in 24T. Minsk, Literature, 1996, vol. 3, p. 69, 70
Tsirkin. From Canaan to Carthage. Decree. cit., p. 145
Strabo. Decree. cit., book 15, chapter 3, 22, p. 682
Lundin A. G. State of the Mukarrib Saba, M, 1971
The World History. Decree. cit., volume 3, p. 29
Oppenheim L. Ancient Mesopotamia, M, Science, 1980, p. 120
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Shooting Range ancient Phoenician city state on east coast Mediterranean Sea. Ancient city Shooting Range was formed in the 3rd millennium BC. Its founders were the Phoenicians. Nowadays, at a distance of 20 kilometers from its outskirts there is the border of Lebanon with Israel. Tire is believed to be the first Phoenician settlement. According to an ancient legend, the city was founded on the area where the god Melqart was born. According to ancient legend, before the settlement of the territory of present Tyre, there was small island, freely moving along Mediterranean Sea. Over time, an eagle was sacrificed at the birthplace of the Phoenician god. After drops of blood fell on the island, he stopped his movement.
In the 28th century BC, a temple was erected in Tire in honor of Melqart. In front of the entrance there were two columns made of gold. The height of each of them reached 9 meters. Every day in the halls of the temple a ritual of sacrifice was performed, which was accompanied by dancing. Only barefoot people were allowed to walk indoors. In the 6th century BC, the city was captured by the troops of Nebuchadnezzar with the aim of plundering the ancient settlement. But the inhabitants of the city managed to escape to an island located next to Tire, where they built a new city under the same name.
In the 9th century BC, the island territories, by order of King Hiram, were connected to the mainland by an isthmus. As a result, an artificial cape was formed. During the period of the conquests of Alexander the Great, the isthmus was destroyed, replacing it with a pier. The great commander himself took part in its construction. It is known that the first two buckets of sand were poured into the base of the dam. All construction work was carried out manually. Due to a lack of raw materials, townspeople were forced to demolish their own homes. Over time, the island turned into a peninsula.
Shooting range - was the only city that did not surrender voluntarily to Alexander the Great. The townspeople bravely fought the enemy who attacked them. The invaders were forced to attack the city for 7 long months. After the capture of Tire, most of the townspeople were destroyed, the survivors were driven into slavery.
In the era of Alexander the Great, Tire was famous for its cedar, which was used for the construction of dams and ships. During Phoenician times, the city was famous for its glass and textile craftsmen. On its territory minted coins began to be used for the first time. Over the entire period of its existence, Tire changed its rulers more than once from different countries. Temples are witnesses to those events, historical monuments and ancient ruins of ancient buildings.
The monograph, based on archaeological and written sources, reconstructs the history of Thira, the social structure and culture of the city, its place among other ancient cities and its role in the life of the tribes of the North-Western Black Sea region for a millennium.
One of the most famous ancient Phoenician cities and one of the largest commercial centers of the Ancient World, the city of Tyre, was founded in the 28th century BC. Currently, this city is known as Sur and is located in modern Lebanon. According to Phoenician legend, the city of Tire was built by the sailor god Usos, who sailed on a log to the island on which he built an altar.
Mentions in ancient sources regarding Tire and its inhabitants can be found in the chronicles of Ancient Egypt, and in other important historical documents of Antiquity. Tire was originally an important port and trading city, which traded with many countries in the region, including Ancient Egypt. Also, the vast majority of Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean were colonies of Tire (including Cadiz and Carthage).
The prosperity of Tire constantly aroused the envy of the rulers powerful empires Ancient world, and as a consequence it was constantly besieged by Assyrian, Babylonian, Judean, Persian and Egyptian troops. These constant wars and sieges led to the decline of Tire's power in the region and the weakening of its power in the colonies.
During the period of rise Ancient Greece, Tire became an important educational and scientific center, retaining this status during the period Ancient Rome. Tire also entered the history of Christianity as one of the first Christian cities; The Apostle Paul lived and preached here for a short period of time.
Sources: guide.travel.ru, tochka-na-karte.ru, www.bookarchive.ru, sredizemnomor.ru, interpretive.ru
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