Russia was becoming a great maritime power, and this posed new challenges for Russian geographers.
In 1803-1806. The first Russian round-the-world expedition was undertaken from Kronstadt to Kamchatka and Alaska. It was headed by Admiral Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern (1770-1846). He commanded the ship "Hope". The ship "Neva" was commanded by Captain Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky (1773-1837). During the expedition, the islands of the Pacific Ocean, China, Japan, Sakhalin and Kamchatka were studied. were drawn up detailed maps explored places. Lisyansky, having independently made the transition from the Hawaiian Islands to Alaska, collected rich material about the peoples of Oceania and North America.
The attention of researchers around the world has long attracted the mysterious area around the South Pole. It was assumed that there is a vast southern mainland. English navigator J. Cook in the 70s of the XVIII century. crossed the Antarctic Circle, encountered impenetrable ice and declared that navigation further south was impossible. Since then, no south polar expeditions have been undertaken for a very long time.
In 1819, Russia equipped an expedition to the southern polar seas on two sloops under the leadership of Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen (1778-1852). He commanded the sloop Vostok. The commander of the Mirny was Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev (1788-1851). Bellingshausen was an experienced explorer, participated in the voyage of Krusenstern. Lazarev subsequently became famous as a military admiral, who brought up a whole galaxy of naval commanders (Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin).
The expedition crossed the Antarctic Circle several times, and in January 1820 saw the ice coast for the first time. Approaching it in the area of the modern Bellingshausen Ice Shelf, the travelers concluded that they were facing an “ice continent”. Then the island of Peter I and the coast of Alexander I were discovered. In 1821, the expedition returned to their homeland, having made the discovery of Antarctica and a complete voyage around it on small sailing ships, poorly adapted to polar conditions.
In 1811, Russian sailors led by Captain Vasily Mikhailovich Golovkin (1776-1831) explored the Kuril Islands and were taken into Japanese captivity. Golovkin's notes on his three-year stay in Japan introduced Russian society with the life of this mysterious country. Golovnin's student, Fyodor Petrovich Litke (1797-1882) explored the Arctic Ocean, the shores of Kamchatka and America. He founded the Russian Geographical Society, which played a big role in the development of geographical science.
Large geographical discoveries in Russian Far East associated with the name of Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky (1813-1876). In 1848-1849. he sailed around Cape Horn to Kamchatka, and then led the Amur expedition. He opened the mouth of the Amur, a strait between Sakhalin and the mainland, and proved that Sakhalin is an island, not a peninsula.
Expeditions of Russian travelers, in addition to purely scientific results, were of great importance in the mutual knowledge of peoples. In distant countries, local residents often learned about Russia for the first time from Russian travelers. In turn, the Russian people were enriched with knowledge about other countries and peoples.
Who: Semyon Dezhnev, Cossack chieftain, merchant, fur trader.
When: 1648
What opened: The first to pass was the Bering Strait, which separates Eurasia from North America.
Thus, I found out that Eurasia and North America are two different continents, and that they do not merge.
Who: Thaddeus Bellingshausen, Russian admiral, navigator.
Trips
When: 1820.
What opened: Antarctica together with Mikhail Lazarev on the frigates Vostok and Mirny.
Commanded the East. Before the expedition of Lazarev and Bellingshausen, nothing was known about the existence of this continent.
Also, the expedition of Bellingshausen and Lazarev finally dispelled the myth about the existence of the mythical "Southern Continent", which was erroneously marked on all medieval maps of Europe.
Navigators, including the famous Captain James Cook, searched without any success in Indian Ocean this "Southern Continent" is over three hundred and fifty years old, and of course nothing has been found.
Who: Kamchaty Ivan, Cossack and sable hunter.
When: 1650s.
What opened: peninsulas of Kamchatka, named after him.
Who: Semyon Chelyuskin, polar explorer, Russian Navy officer
When: 1742
What opened: most northern cape Eurasia, named in his honor Cape Chelyuskin.
Who: Ermak Timofeevich, Cossack ataman in the service of the Russian Tsar. Ermak's last name is unknown. Possibly Tokmok.
When: 1581-1585
What opened: conquered and explored Siberia for the Russian state. To do this, he entered into a successful armed struggle with the Tatar khans in Siberia.
Ivan Kruzenshtern, officer of the Russian fleet, admiral
When: 1803-1806.
What opened: He was the first Russian navigator to travel around the world together with Yuri Lisyansky on the sloops Nadezhda and Neva. Commanded "Hope"
Who: Yuri Lisyansky, Russian Navy officer, captain
When: 1803-1806.
What opened: He was the first Russian navigator to circumnavigate the world together with Ivan Kruzenshtern on the sloops Nadezhda and Neva. Commanded the Neva.
Who: Petr Semenov-Tyan-Shansky
When: 1856-57
What opened: The first of the Europeans explored the Tien Shan mountains.
He also later studied a number of areas in Central Asia. For research mountain system and services to science received from the authorities of the Russian Empire the honorary name Tien-Shansky, which he had the right to pass on by inheritance.
Who: Vitus Bering
When: 1727-29
What opened: The second (after Semyon Dezhnev) and the first of the scientific researchers reached North America, passing through the Bering Strait, thereby confirming its existence. Confirmed that North America and Eurasia are two different continents.
Who: Khabarov Erofey, Cossack, fur trader
When: 1649-53
What opened: mastered part of Siberia and the Far East for the Russians, studied the lands near the Amur River.
Who: Mikhail Lazarev, Russian Navy officer.
When: 1820
What opened: Antarctica together with Thaddeus Bellingshausen on the frigates Vostok and Mirny.
Commanded "Peace". Before the expedition of Lazarev and Bellingshausen, nothing was known about the existence of this continent. Also, the Russian expedition finally dispelled the myth about the existence of the mythical "Southern Continent", which was marked on medieval European maps, and which navigators unsuccessfully searched for for four hundred years in a row.
The achievements of Russian scientists in the field of geographical research. Russian travelers visited places where no European had ever set foot before. In the second half 19th century. their efforts were focused on exploring the interior of Asia.
The beginning of expeditions into the depths of Asia was laid Pyotr Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914) geographer, statistician, botanist.
He made a number of trips to the mountains Central Asia, in the Tien Shan. Having headed the Russian Geographical Society, he began to play a leading role in developing plans for new expeditions.
The Russian Geographical Society was associated with the activities of other Russian travelers- P.
A. Kropotkin and N. M. Przhevalsky.
P. A. Kropotkin in 1864-1866 traveled through Northern Manchuria, the Sayans and the Vitim Plateau.
Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888) he made his first expedition along the Ussuri region, then his paths ran through the most inaccessible regions of Central Asia.
He several times crossed Mongolia, Northern China, explored the Gobi Desert, Tien Shan, visited Tibet. He died en route, at the start of his last expedition. In connection with the news of his death, A.P. Chekhov wrote that such "ascetics are needed like the sun." “Constituting the most poetic and cheerful element of society,” he added, “they excite, console and ennoble ...
Russian travelers of the 19th century (briefly)
If the positive types created by literature constitute valuable educational material, then the same types given by life itself are beyond any price.
overseas Russian travels scientists in the second half of the 19th century.
become more targeted. If before they were mainly limited to describing and mapping coastline, now the life, culture, customs of local peoples were studied. This direction, the beginning of which in the XVIII century. put S. P. Krasheninnikov, it was continued Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay (1846-1888).
He made his first travels in Canary Islands and across North Africa. In the early 70s, he visited a number of Pacific islands, studied the life of local peoples. For 16 months he lived among the Papuans on the northeastern coast of New Guinea (this place has since been called the Maclay Coast).
Russian scientist won trust and love local residents. Then he traveled through the Philippines, Indonesia, Malacca, and again returned to the Maclay Coast. The descriptions of life and customs, economy and culture of the peoples of Oceania, compiled by the scientist, were largely published only after his death.
World geographical science in those years largely relied on the achievements of Russian researchers.
By the end of the XIX century. the era of geographical discoveries ended. And only the icy expanses of the Arctic and Antarctic still kept many of their secrets. The heroic epic of the latest geographical discoveries, in which Russian researchers took an active part, falls at the beginning of the 20th century.
§ The first Russian Marxist V.
G. Plekhanov
§Beginning of Lenin's revolutionary activity
§Beginning of the reign of Alexander I
§Beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812
§End of the Patriotic War of 1812
Chapter #8
Lecture No. 36
Culture of Russia in the 19th century
First half of the 19th century
Education and science
At the very beginning of the 19th century, a system of higher, secondary and primary education finally took shape in Russia. Held in 1803 The reform in the field of education led to the creation of a gymnasium in every provincial town, and a school in every county town. Parish schools were also created in the countryside, they accepted children of different classes. For driving educational institutions The Ministry of Public Education was created.
IN 1811 was opened Alexander (Tsarskoye Selo) Lyceum, in which representatives of the highest noble society studied (including A.S. Pushkin),
The government of Alexander I paid great attention to the development of higher education. In addition to the only Moscow University in Russia before that, only in the first two decades of the century five new ones were opened: Derpt (1802), Kazan (1804), Kharkov (1804), Vilensky (1804), Petersburg (1819).
Under Nicholas I, all types of schools were preserved, but each of them became class-separated. Parish one-class schools were now intended for representatives of the "bottom". They taught the Law of God, literacy and arithmetic for a year. The children of merchants, artisans, and philistines were admitted to county three-year schools. Here they taught the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry, history and geography. Children of nobles, officials, merchants of the first guild studied in seven-grade gymnasiums. In 1827, the authorities once again pointed out the impossibility of teaching the children of serfs in gymnasiums and universities. The control over universities, which were considered sources of "unreliability", was strengthened. In 1835, the universities were deprived of the status of internal autonomy.
The number of military educational institutions, in which mainly young nobles were trained, is increasing. In 1832, the Imperial Military Academy was opened, in 1855, the Artillery and Engineering Academy.
The growth of industrial production and the development of technology caused an increase in the need for specialists in technical specialties. In the first half of the 19th century, the number of vocational schools increased. In the early 1830s, the Institute of Civil Engineers, the Forestry Institute, the Polytechnic Institute, the Institute of Railway Engineers, and the Mining Institute were opened in St. Petersburg. The Commercial Academy, the Agricultural School, the Mining School, and the Technical School were opened in Moscow.
The development of domestic science also contributed to the improvement of the education system.
| Biology | |
| Ivan Alekseevich Dvigubsky | He refuted the statement about the immutability of plants and animals, he argued that the earth's surface and the creatures inhabiting it over time undergo fundamental changes under the influence of natural causes. |
| Ustin Evdokimovich Dyadkovsky | He put forward and proved the idea that all phenomena in nature are due to natural causes and are subject to the general laws of development. Life, in his opinion, is a continuous physical and chemical process. |
| Karl Maksimovich Baer | A serious step forward in substantiating ideas about the development of living organisms was the work "The Universal Law of the Development of Nature". |
| Medicine | |
| Nikolay Ivanovich Pirogov | Professor of the Medico-Surgical Academy, founder of military field surgery. During the years of the Crimean War, for the first time in the field, he used anesthesia during an operation, used a fixed plaster cast for the treatment of fractures. |
| Mathematics | |
| Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky | Created non-Euclidean geometry |
| Physics | |
| Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov | Developed a galvanic battery. It made it possible to obtain a stable electric arc - a prototype of the future electric light bulb. |
| Boris Semenovich Jacobi | Invented the electric motor, electroforming - a method of applying a thin layer of metal to the desired surface using electricity. Invented the direct-printing machine for the telegraph |
| Emil Khristianovich Lenz | Established a rule for determining the direction of the driving force of induction (Lenz's law0, and a year later, on this basis, an electric motor was invented |
| Pavel Lvovich Schilling | Created the world's first practical electric telegraph - a device for transmitting written messages over wires |
| Chemistry | |
| Konstantin Sigismundovich Kirchhoff | Developed a method for obtaining glucose. |
| German Ivanovich Hess | He discovered the basic law of thermochemistry, which expressed the principle of conservation of energy in relation to chemical processes |
| Petr Grigorievich Sobolevsky and Vasily Vasilyevich Lyubarsky | Laid the foundation of powder metallurgy |
| Science in production | |
| Pavel Petrovich Anosov | Developed four options for the technology of producing damask steel |
| Yefim and Miron Cherepanov, serf mechanics | Built the first steam railway |
| Chemists N.N. Zinin and A.M. Butlerov | Created sustainable chemical dyes for the booming textile industry |
| Story | |
| Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin | Wrote a 12-volume "History of the Russian State" |
| Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov | Wrote "History of Russia from ancient times" in 29 volumes |
Russian pioneers and travelers
| Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern and Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky | In 1803-1806, during the first Russian round-the-world expedition, more than a thousand kilometers of the coast of Sakhalin Island were mapped. A lot of data was collected by the members of the expedition about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic Oceans. Lisyansky discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, named after him. As a result of the expedition, Kruzenshtern was awarded the title of academician. His materials formed the basis of the published Atlas South Seas». |
| Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev | In 1819-1821. Bellingshausen was instructed to lead a new round-the-world expedition on boats (single-masted ships) "Vostok" and "Mirny". In 1820, the expedition approached the shores of Antarctica, unknown at that time, which Bellingshausen called "the ice continent." After stopping in Australia, the Russian ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called the Russian Islands. During 751 days of sailing, Russian sailors made the most important geographical discoveries, brought valuable collections, observation data on the waters of the world ocean and the ice cover of a continent new to mankind |
| Alexander Andreevich Baranov | He made a huge contribution to the development of Russian America. As a merchant, he led the search for minerals, founded Russian settlements and supplied them with everything necessary. It was he who managed to secure Russia vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America |
| Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky | In 1848-1855. he managed to bypass Sakhalin from the north, open a number of new territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur. |
| Evfimy Vasilyevich Putyatin | In 1852-1855. being the leader of the expedition discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands. Together with Nevelsky, he laid the foundation for securing the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia. |
Art culture
"Golden Age" of Russian Literature
In the first half of the 19th century, Russian literature entered its "golden age". She raised the most important social problems, one of the main among them was the problem of strengthening national consciousness. Writers and poets turned to the historical past of the country, tried to find answers to modern questions in it.
An important feature of the development of literature and art of this time was the rapid change in artistic trends and the simultaneous existence of various artistic styles.
The dominant trend in Russian and European art at the beginning of the 19th century remained classicism. His followers imitated classical ancient art. However, Russian classicism had its own characteristics. If in the second half of the 18th century, he was more connected with the ideas of the Enlightenment of the people, then under the influence of the Napoleonic Wars, the ideas of serving the sovereign and the Fatherland were laid in the basis of the works of classicism.
The most striking example of a combination of literary work and the activities of a historian was the work of Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin. In the story “Marfa Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novgorod”, he compares the republican (embodied in the history of Novgorod) and autocratic (Moscow) traditions of Russian history. Despite his sympathy for republican ideas, Karamzin makes his choice in favor of autocracy, and thus a united and strong Russian state. These thoughts were imbued with his scientific work "History of the Russian State".
The sentimentalism of Karamzin and other writers manifested itself in the idealization of rural life, the relationship between peasants and landowners, the moral traits of a person of previous eras.
One of the leading trends in the artistic culture of the first decades of the 19th century was romanticism. Romanticism is a trend in literature and art, which is characterized by a special interest in an extraordinary personality, a lonely hero who opposes himself, the world of his soul to the world around him.
Russian romanticism was distinguished by an increased interest in national identity, traditions, national history, the assertion of a strong, liberated personality.
The creator of Russian romanticism is Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, a poet whose works: the ballads "Lyudmila" and "Svetlana" became models of the style of new literature.
In addition to him, representatives of romanticism were the Decembrist poets K.F. Ryleev, V.K. Kuchelbecker, A.I. Odoevsky.
At the beginning of their work, romantic works were created by the great poets Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin and Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov. Their works, in contrast to the dreamy and sometimes mystical works of Zhukovsky, were characterized by vital optimism, an active position in the struggle for ideals. These features were predominant in the romantic literature of the early 19th century, and it was they that marked the transition to realism, which became the main style in the 3-40s. outstanding examples of literature in this direction were the works of the late Pushkin (rightfully considered the founder of realism in Russian literature) - the historical drama "Boris Godunov", the stories "The Captain's Daughter", "Dubrovsky", "Belkin's Tale", the poem "The Bronze Horseman", etc. as well as Lermontov's novel "A Hero of Our Time".
In the 20-50s. another new trend is gaining ground - realism. His followers tried to depict the surrounding reality in its most typical manifestations. One of the currents of the new style was critical realism, revealing the unfavorable aspects of life and the very content of the works requiring changes.
The founder of the "natural school" (critical realism) was Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol. One of the brightest works of this artistic direction was his story "The Overcoat", which, along with his other works: "Dead Souls", "The Inspector General", and others, began the "Gogol period" of Russian literature of the 30-40s. “We all came out of Gogol's Overcoat,” F.M. Dostoevsky.
The realistic world of the Russian merchant class was shown to the reader in his first drama "Our people - let's get along" by Alexander Nikolayevich Ostrovsky, who revealed the distinctive features of the representatives of the merchant class, which was rapidly increasing its importance. The playwright worked in his youth at the Moscow Commercial Court, where he gained rich life experience related to the life and customs of the Russian merchant class.
In the 40-50s. The central place in literature was occupied by the theme of the serf village, its customs and mores. A literary event was the publication of Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev's Notes of a Hunter, who described not only the nature of the Central Russian zone, but also the serfs, to whom he treated with sympathy and kindness.
The hopeless poverty and downtroddenness of the serf were depicted in the stories of Dmitry Vasilyevich Grigorovich "The Village" and "Anton-Goremyk". As one of his contemporaries wrote, "not a single educated person of that time ... could read without tears about the misfortunes of Anton and not be indignant at the horrors of serfdom."
The first half of the 19th century was the time of the formation of the modern literary language, based on the traditions of folk speech and replacing the heavy written speech of the previous century.
Theater
In the Russian theater, the change of artistic trends took place as quickly as in literature.
At the beginning of the 19th century, classicism dominated the stage of Russian theaters with its inherent antique and mythological plots, external splendor.
In the 20-30s. a romantic school appears with its characteristic inner experience of the characters. Pavel Stepanovich Mochalov, who gained particular popularity in the roles of Hamlet (in the tragedy of the same name by W. Shakespeare) and Ferdinand (in F. Schiller's drama "Cunning and Love"), became the largest representative of romanticism in the Russian theater. His game was distinguished by violent emotionality, and his heroes were distinguished by a selfless struggle for freedom and justice.
In the 40s. a new page begins in the history of the Russian theater, associated with the development of the realistic direction. In dramaturgy, it was associated with the works of Pushkin, Griboyedov, Gogol, Ostrovsky. The founder of realism on the Russian stage was the great actor of the Moscow Maly Theater Mikhail Semenovich Shchepkin, a native of serfs. He was a true reformer of Russian acting art. Shchepkin was the first to suggest subordinating the entire performance to a single idea. Each new role of Shchepkin in the Maly Theater became the biggest social event in the life of Moscow.
Another remarkable actor of the stage realism school was Alexander Martynov. His work is associated with the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg. With great skill he conveyed the experiences and everyday life of the "little man" of his time.
An important feature of the development of the theater in those years was that the previously unified Petrovsky Theater in Moscow in 1824 was divided into the Bolshoi (intended for opera and ballet productions) and the Maly (drama). In St. Petersburg, the most famous was the Alexandrinsky Theatre, which differed from the more democratic Maly Theater in its official character.
Music
Music, more than other forms of art, was influenced by the heroic 1812. If earlier everyday opera prevailed, now composers turned to the heroic plots of Russia's historical past. One of the first in this series was the opera by K.A. Kavos "Ivan Susanin".
The entire first half of the 19th century was marked by the strengthening of Russian national themes and the influence of folk melodies in musical works. Folk motifs sounded in the musical works of A.E. Varlamova, A.A. Alyabeva, A.L. Gurilev.
The romantic direction in musical art belongs to Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka, who laid the foundations of the Russian national school in music. “The people create music,” he said, and we, the artists, only arrange it.
Glinka managed to establish in Russian music not only folk, but also realistic traditions. He became the ancestor of the main genres of domestic professional music. The most vivid idea of the composer's work is given by his opera A Life for the Tsar (Ivan Susanin). In it, Glinka glorified a simple patriotic peasant and at the same time the courage, steadfastness and greatness of the character of the entire Russian people.
Development national theme another Russian composer, Alexander Sergeevich Dargomyzhsky, continued in music. His main work - the opera "Mermaid" - marked the birth of a new genre of Russian opera - folk psychological drama.
Painting
During this period, there is a rejection of classicism with its characteristic biblical and mythological plots, admiration for the classical heritage of Greece and Rome. There is a growing interest of artists in the personality of a person, in the life of not only gods and kings, but also ordinary people.
The largest figure of classicism in Russian painting was Karl Pavlovich Bryullov. In one of his most famous and large-scale works - "The Last Day of Pompeii" - for the first time he presented the people as a hero, conveying dignity, heroism and greatness common man in the face of a natural disaster. In this work, Bryullov marked the desire for realism. It manifested itself in all his paintings: “Self-portrait”, “Horsewoman”, etc.
Remarkable portrait painters Orest Adamovich Kiprensky and Vasily Andreevich Tropinin became prominent representatives of romanticism in painting. Kiprensky created portraits of A.S., remarkable in their expressiveness. Pushkin and A.N. Olenin (President of the Academy of Arts). In them, he showed the sublime beginning, the inner world of the moods and experiences of his heroes, known throughout Russia. A distinctive feature of Tropinin's work was showing a person in his surroundings, doing what he loves. Such are his genre portraits “Lacemaker”, “Guitarist”, “Golden stitcher”, etc. Tropinin is also famous for the fact that he became the author of the second lifetime portrait of A.S. Pushkin.
One of the greatest masters of Russian painting was Alexander Andreevich Ivanov. The main work of his life was the painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People", on the creation of which the artist worked for 20 years. The main idea of the picture is confidence in the need for moral renewal of people. Each person from the set depicted in the picture is individual and unique. The artist managed to show the high purpose of education. Words that can show people the way to a better future.
The founder of critical realism in Russian painting was Pavel Andreevich Fedotov. In his genre paintings, he was able to express major social problems. Such were, for example, his works: "The Fresh Cavalier" and "Major's Matchmaking", in which the drama of situations is visible, the critical position of the author in relation to reality.
The birth of the everyday genre, popular in the 19th century, is associated with the work of Alexei Gavrilovich Venetsianov. His paintings have become a real discovery in Russian painting. They were dedicated to the daily work and life of the peasants. In the works of the 20s. “On the arable land. Spring”, “In the harvest. Summer”, “Zakharka”, in the portrait gallery of the peasants, he depicted their life in poetic colors, subtly feeling and conveying the beauty of his native nature. This direction of painting is commonly called the "Venetian school".
I.K. worked in the seascape genre. Aivazovsky. His canvases amaze with a surprisingly picturesque image of the sea element. The painting “The Ninth Wave” gained particular fame, which is a vivid example of the master’s unsurpassed professionalism and testifies to the romantic warehouse of his work during this period.
The center of the artistic life of Russia at that time was the School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, opened in 1832 in Moscow.
Architecture
In the architecture of the first half of the century, classicism lingered longer than in other areas of artistic creativity. He dominated almost until the 40s. Its pinnacle at the beginning of the 19th century was the style empire, expressed in massive monumental forms, rich decorations, austerity of lines inherited from imperial Rome. An important element of the Empire was also sculptures that complemented the architectural design of buildings. Palaces and mansions of the nobility, buildings of higher government institutions, meetings of the nobility, government offices, theaters and even temples were built in the Empire style.
The beginning of the 19th century was a time of rapid development of the capitals of St. Petersburg and Moscow, as well as the central part of large provincial cities. A feature of the construction of this period was the creation of architectural ensembles - a number of buildings and structures, united into a single whole. It was then that Palace, Admiralty and Senate squares were formed in St. Petersburg, and Teatralnaya in Moscow.
The largest representatives of the Russian Empire were Andrey Dmitrievich Zakharov, who created the building of the Admiralty in St. Petersburg, Andrei Nikiforovich Voronikhin, who built the Kazan Cathedral, which laid the foundation for the ensemble of Nevsky Prospekt.
Karl Ivanovich Rossi also worked in the Empire style, who created the building of the Alexandrinsky Theater, the Public Library, the Senate and the Synod.
In Moscow, in the Empire style, the works of Osip Ivanovich Bove were made: Red Square reconstructed after the fire of 1812, Theater Square with the Bolshoi Theater, Triumphal Gates, etc.
The architects Domenico Gilardi and Afanasy Grigoryevich Grigoriev worked a lot and fruitfully in Moscow. They restored the public buildings of Moscow destroyed by fire in 1812: the Sloboda Palace, the Catherine Institute, Moscow University.
With the beginning of the decline of classicism in the 30s. the "Russian-Byzantine" style begins to spread. The architect Konstantin Andreevich Ton created the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace, the Armory, the Nikolaevsky (now Leningradsky) railway station, etc. in this style.
The largest Orthodox church in St. Petersburg was St. Isaac's Cathedral, built in 1818-1858. designed by the architect Auguste Montferan, under the personal control of Emperor Nicholas I.
| Architect O. Monferrano. Saint Isaac's Cathedral | The interior of St. Isaac's Cathedral |
Sculpture
The development of sculpture was closely linked with the development of architecture. Especially a lot of works organically inscribed in architectural ensembles was created by sculptors Ivan Petrovich Vitali: a bust of Pushkin, angels at the lamps on the corners of St. Isaac's Cathedral and Pyotr Karlovich Klodt: "Horse Tamer" on the Anichkov Bridge. In St. Petersburg, an equestrian monument to Nicholas I installed on the square in front of St. Isaac's Cathedral.
In 1804, Ivan Petrovich Martos creates a monument to Minin and Pozharsky.
Monument to Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, one of the most famous monuments Moscow. It is located on Red Square, next to St. Basil's Cathedral. It was the first monument in Moscow erected not in honor of the sovereign, but in honor of the people's heroes. Funds for the monument were collected by popular subscription. Martos worked on the monument from 1804 to 1817. This is the best creation of Martos, who managed to embody in it the high ideals of civic prowess and patriotism. The sculptor depicted the moment when Kuzma Minin, pointing to Moscow, hands Prince Pozharsky an old sword and urges him to stand at the head of the Russian army. Leaning on a shield, the wounded governor rises from his bed, which symbolizes the awakening of national consciousness at a difficult time for the Fatherland.
The first half of the 19th century went down in history as the beginning "golden age" Russian artistic culture. It was distinguished by: the rapid change of artistic styles and trends, the mutual enrichment and close interconnection of literature and other areas of art, the strengthening of the public sound of the created works, the organic unity and complementarity of the best examples of Western European and Russian folk culture. All this made the artistic culture of Russia diverse and polyphonic, led to an increase in its influence on the life of not only the enlightened strata of society, but also millions of ordinary people.
Second half of the 19th century
Education
The first two decades after the abolition of serfdom passed under the sign of the awareness by society and the state of the need for broad education of the people. The reform in the field of education carried out in 1864 expanded the network of primary educational institutions in Russia, which were divided into three types:
1) zemstvo schools created by the forces of zemstvos
2) church schools
3) public schools of the Ministry of public education
According to the reform, secondary educational institutions were divided into two types:
- classical gymnasiums- in them the main emphasis was placed on the study of subjects of the humanities cycle, graduates of gymnasiums could enter universities without exams;
Real schools - differed from gymnasiums in greater attention to the natural sciences: mathematics, physics, chemistry, real schools prepared for admission to technical higher educational institutions.
Zemstvos began to play a huge role in the spread of education. From 1864 to 1874 alone, almost 10,000 zemstvo schools were opened. The government gave preference to parochial schools, but the state did not have enough money to maintain them. Therefore, the zemstvo school continued to be the most common type of elementary school, covering all provincial and district cities, as well as many rural areas. main type high school were high schools. In 1861, there were 85 men's gymnasiums in Russia; a quarter of a century later, the number of gymnasiums tripled. about 300 women's gymnasiums were opened.
There were also advances in higher education. New universities opened in Tomsk and Odessa. In 1863, a new university charter came into effect, expanding the rights of universities to self-govern.
There were special higher educational institutions - Medical and Surgical Academy, Technological, Mining, Communications, Electrotechnical Universities, Petrovsky Agricultural Academy. There was a formation of higher education for women. By the end of the 19th century, there were more than 60 state higher educational institutions in Russia.
However, in general, the literacy rate of the Russian population remained one of the lowest in Europe. According to the 1897 census average level literacy of the country's population was 21.1%. A little more than 1% of the population had a higher education, 4% had an average education.
Scientific discoveries
| Mathematics and physics | |
| Pafnuty Lvovich Chebyshev - mathematician and physicist | Designed a walking machine. Imitating the movement of an animal when walking, as well as an automatic calculating machine - adding machine. |
| Alexander Grigorievich Stoletov - physicist | By measuring the ratio of electromagnetic electrostatic units, he obtained a value close to the speed of light, this discovery contributed to the approval of the electromagnetic theory of light |
| Alexander Stepanovich Popov - physicist | He made a receiver-transmitter, after a few years he achieved a 150-kilometer transmission and reception range. For his discovery, he was awarded the Grand Gold Medal at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900. |
| Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov - physicist | Created an arc light bulb, which soon lit up the streets and houses of many cities around the world |
| Naval officer Alexander Fedorovich Mozhaisky | Designed the world's first aircraft |
| Self-taught mechanic Fedor Abramovich Blinov | Invented caterpillar tractor |
| Chemistry, biology | |
| Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev - chemist | Discovered the periodic law of the elements |
| Rector of Kazan University Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov, chemist | Laid the foundations of organic chemistry |
| Vasily Vasilyevich Dokuchaev - soil scientist | Dokuchaev's published works on Russian soils were awarded a gold medal, in his book he outlined a plan to combat the drought that hit the black earth belt of Russia by planting windbreaks. |
| Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov - biologist | He created the doctrine of the reflexes of the brain, thereby carrying out a revolution in biological science. He was the first to scientifically prove the unity and mutual conditioning of mental and bodily phenomena, emphasizing that mental activity is nothing but the result of the work of the brain. |
| Ivan Petrovich Pavlov - biologist | He created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes, which marked the beginning of modern ideas about the brain of animals and humans. Pavlov proved that the conditioned reflex is the highest and latest form of adaptation of the organism to environment. If the unconditioned reflex is a relatively constant innate reaction of the organism, inherent in all representatives of this species, then the conditioned reflex is a new acquisition of the organism, the result of its accumulation of individual life experience. |
| Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov and Nikolai Fedorovich Gamaleya - biologists | They organized the first bacteriological station in Russia, developed methods for fighting rabies, and paid great attention to the fight against pests of agricultural plants. |
| Geography | |
| Academician, Admiral Fyodor Petrovich Litke - geographer | Explored Kamchatka, Chukotka and a number of islands in the North Pacific |
| Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky - geographer | He made major geological and zoological surveys of Central Asia, discovered a number of mountain ranges and large mountain lakes unknown to Europeans, for the first time descriptions of some animals were given: a wild horse, a wild camel, a Tibetan bear. In the herbarium he collected, which numbered up to 16 thousand copies, 218 new plant species were discovered |
| Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay - geographer | Dedicated his life to the study of peoples South-East Asia, Australia, Pacific Islands. For two and a half years he lived on the northeast coast of New Guinea. Won the love and trust of its inhabitants. He visited the southwestern coast of this island, the southeastern coast, made two difficult journeys to the hinterland of Malacca, visited the Philippines and Indonesia, lived in Australia, where he founded a biological station. |
| Humanitarian sciences | |
| Professor, Dean of the Faculty of History and Philology, and then Rector of Moscow University Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov | Created a 29-volume "History of Russia from ancient times." His Public Readings on Peter the Great, timed to coincide with the 200th anniversary of the birth of the great reformer of Russia, became a major scientific and social phenomenon. He was also a supporter of the comparative historical method of research, pointed to common features development of Russia and Western Europe. |
| Solovyov's student Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky | Brilliantly defended his doctoral dissertation "Boyar Duma" at Moscow University. Ancient Rus'". He was the author of the "Course of Russian History", which he read at Moscow University. |
Domestic science second half of XIX century came to the forefront. Russian scientists have made a significant contribution to the development of world scientific thought. The reasons for this phenomenon were those favorable changes in the life of the country that came along with the abolition of serfdom, they awakened the initiative of the Russian people.
Literature
The main artistic direction of the second half of the 19th century was critical realism. He was distinguished by increased attention to the display of real life based on its critical perception. The literature of that time was characterized by the spirit of accusation, a close interest in the life of the common man, the desire to find ways and means of combating the vices of society. The most striking example of critical literature is the work of Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin. Russia appears funny, but at the same time terrible in the works of the satirist: “Provincial Essays”, “History of a City”, “Lord Golovlev”, “Pompadours and Pompadourses”. The artistic technique used by the writer is the grotesque. In his works, he brings to the extreme all the existing vices and weaknesses. The writer knows no mercy either for officials, or for representatives of high society, for merchants, or for the emerging bourgeoisie.
I. Kruzenshtern and Yu. Lisyansky In 1803 an expedition was undertaken to explore the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. It was the FIRST RUSSIAN EXPEDITION. It was headed by I. Kruzenshtern. For the first time, more than a thousand km of the coast of about. Sakhalin. Lisyansky discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago. We collected a lot of data about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic Oceans. These materials formed the basis of the Atlas of the South Seas. In 1803 an expedition was undertaken to explore the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. It was the FIRST RUSSIAN EXPEDITION. It was headed by I. Kruzenshtern. For the first time, more than a thousand km of the coast of about. Sakhalin. Lisyansky discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago. We collected a lot of data about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic Oceans. These materials formed the basis of the Atlas of the South Seas.
F. Bellingshausen and M. Lazarev In F. Bellingshausen led a new round-the-world expedition. The plan was made by I. Kruzenshtern. In F. Bellingshausen led a new round-the-world expedition. The plan was made by I. Kruzenshtern. The goal was "the acquisition of the fullest knowledge of our the globe"and" the discovery of the possible proximity of the Antarctic Pole "On January 16, 1820, the expedition approached the shores of Antarctica, then, after stopping in Australia, the ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called the Russian Islands. The goal was" the acquisition of complete knowledge about our on the globe" and "the discovery of the possible proximity of the Antarctic Pole" On January 16, 1820, the expedition approached the shores of Antarctica, then, after stopping in Australia, the ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called the Russian Islands
A. Baranov and the development of Russian America In search of new hunting areas, A. Baranov studied the island of Kodiak in detail. It was he who managed for the first time to truly secure vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America for Russia. In 1799 he became the ruler of the Russian-American Company, and in 1803 he was appointed ruler of Alaska. In 1815 he undertook an expedition to the Hawaiian Islands with the aim of annexing them to Russia. In search of new hunting areas, A. Baranov studied the island of Kodiak in detail. It was he who managed for the first time to truly secure vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America for Russia. In 1799 he became the ruler of the Russian-American Company, and in 1803 he was appointed ruler of Alaska. In 1815 he undertook an expedition to the Hawaiian Islands with the aim of annexing them to Russia.
G. Nevelskoy and E. Putyatin G. Nevelskoy - the largest researcher of the Far East. In 2 expeditions (and) he managed to discover new territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur. G. Nevelskoy is the largest researcher of the Far East. In 2 expeditions (and) he managed to discover new territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur. E. Putyatin - discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands. And he was the first Russian who visited Japan and signed an agreement there. E. Putyatin - discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands. And he was the first Russian who visited Japan and signed an agreement there. The result of the expedition of G. Nevelsky and E. Putyatin, in addition to purely scientific, was the consolidation of the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia. In 1845 the opening of the Russian Geographical Society. The result of the expedition of G. Nevelsky and E. Putyatin, in addition to purely scientific, was the consolidation of the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia. In 1845 the opening of the Russian Geographical Society.
Russian pioneers and travelers of the 19th century made a number of outstanding discoveries, which became the property of not only Russian, but also foreign, world science. In addition, they made a significant contribution to the development of domestic knowledge and did a lot to promote the training of new personnel for the development of marine research.
Prerequisites
Russian pioneers and travelers of the 19th century made their discoveries largely because this century saw the need to look for new trade routes and opportunities to support Russia's ties with other countries. At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century, our country finally strengthened its status in the international arena as a world power. Naturally, this new position expanded its geopolitical space, which required new exploration of the seas, islands and ocean coasts for the construction of ports, ships and the development of trade with foreign countries.
The Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century took place as talented navigators just at the very time when our country achieved access to two seas: the Baltic and the Black. And it is no coincidence. This opened up new prospects for maritime research and gave impetus to the construction and development of fleets, maritime affairs in general. Therefore, it is not surprising that already in the first decades of the century under consideration, Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century carried out a number of outstanding studies that significantly enriched Russian geographical science.
World expedition plan
Such a project became possible largely due to the successful military operations of our country at the end of the 18th century. At this time, Russia got the opportunity to build its own fleet on the Black Sea, which, of course, should have stimulated maritime affairs. Russian navigators at that time seriously thought about laying convenient trade routes. This was further facilitated by the fact that our country owned Alaska in North America. It was also necessary to maintain constant contacts with her and develop economic cooperation.
I.F. Kruzenshtern at the end of the 18th century presented a plan for a round-the-world expedition. However, then he was rejected. But just a few years later, after the accession of Alexander I, the Russian government showed interest in the presented plan. He got approved.
Preparation
I.F. Kruzenshtern came from a noble family. He studied at the Kronstadt Naval Corps and, being his student, took part in the war against Sweden, having proven himself well then. After that, he was sent for an internship in England, where he received an excellent education. Upon his return to Russia, he presented a plan for a round-the-world expedition. Having received approval, he carefully prepared for it, purchased the best instruments and equipped the ships.
His closest assistant in this matter was his comrade Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky. He became friends with him back in the cadet corps. The friend also proved himself to be a talented naval officer during the Russian-Swedish war of 1788-1790. Soon, two ships were equipped under the names "Neva" and "Nadezhda". The latter was led by Count Nikolai Rezanov, who became famous thanks to the famous rock opera. The expedition set sail in 1803. Its goal was to explore and explore the possibility of opening new trade routes from Russia to China and the coast of North American territory.
Swimming
Russian navigators rounded Cape Horn and, leaving Pacific Ocean, divided. Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky led his ship to the North American shores, where he recaptured the Russian trading city of Novo-Arkhangelsk, captured by the Indians. During this voyage, he also sailed a sailing ship around South Africa for the first time in the history of navigation.
The ship "Nadezhda" under the leadership of Kruzenshtern went to the Sea of Japan. The merit of this explorer is that he carefully explored the shores of Sakhalin Island and made significant changes to the map. The main thing was to explore what the leadership of the Pacific Fleet had long been interested in. Kruzenshtern entered the Amur Estuary, after which, having explored the shores of Kamchatka, he returned to his homeland.
Kruzenshtern's contribution to science
Travelers of Russia have significantly advanced Russian geographical science, bringing it to the world level of development. attracted the attention of the general public. After the end of the trip, both wrote books that outlined the results of their research. Krusenstern published Journey Around the World, but the atlas he published with hydrographic applications is of particular importance. He filled in many blank spots on the map, carried out valuable studies of the seas and oceans. So, he studied the pressure and temperature of the water, sea currents, ebbs and flows.
Social activity
His further career was closely connected with the naval corps, where he was first assigned as an inspector. Subsequently, he began to teach there, and then generally headed it. On his initiative, the Higher Officer Classes were created. Later they were transformed into the Naval Academy. Kruzenshtern introduced new disciplines into the educational process. This has significantly increased the quality level of teaching maritime affairs.
In addition, he helped organize other expeditions, in particular, contributed to the plans of another prominent explorer, O. Kotzebue. Kruzenshtern took part in the creation of the famous Russian Geographical Society, which was destined to take one of the leading places not only in Russian, but also in world science. Of particular importance for the development of geography was the Atlas of the South Sea he published.
Preparing a new expedition
Krusenstern, a few years after his trip, insisted on a thorough study of the southern latitudes. He proposed to equip two expeditions to the North and South Poles, two ships each. Prior to this, the navigator came very close to Antarctica, but the ice prevented him from passing further. Then he suggested that the sixth continent either does not exist, or it is impossible to get to it.
In 1819, the Russian leadership decided to equip a new squadron for navigation. Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen, after a series of delays, was appointed its leader. It was decided to build two ships: Mirny and Vostok. The first was designed according to the plan of Russian scientists. It was durable and water resistant. However, the second, built in the UK, was less stable, so it had to be rebuilt, rebuilt and repaired more than once. The preparation and construction was led by Mikhail Lazarev, who complained about such a discrepancy between the two ships.
Journey south
A new expedition set off in 1819. She reached Brazil and, rounding the mainland, came to the Sandwich Islands. In January 1820, a Russian expedition discovered the sixth continent - Antarctica. During the maneuvers around it, many islands were discovered and described. Among the most significant discoveries are the island of Peter I, the coast of Alexander I. Having made the necessary description of the coast, as well as sketches of the animals seen on the new mainland, Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen sailed back.
During the expedition, in addition to the discovery of Antarctica, other discoveries were made. For example, participants discovered that Sandwich Land is an entire archipelago. In addition, the island of South Georgia has been described. Of particular importance are the descriptions of the new continent. From his ship, Mikhail Lazarev had the opportunity to observe the earth better, so his conclusions are of particular value for science.
The value of the discoveries
The expedition of 1819-1821 was of great importance for domestic and world geographical science. The discovery of a new, sixth continent, turned the idea of the geography of the Earth upside down. Both travelers published the results of their research in two volumes with an atlas and necessary instructions. During the trip, about thirty islands were described, magnificent sketches of the views of Antarctica and its fauna were made. In addition, the expedition members have collected a unique ethnographic collection, which is kept at Kazan University.
Further activities
Bellingshausen subsequently continued his naval career. He participated in the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829, commanded the Baltic Fleet, and then was appointed governor of Kronstadt. An indicator of the recognition of his merits is the fact that a number of geographical objects. First of all, the sea in the Pacific Ocean should be mentioned.
Lazarev also distinguished himself after his famous journey to Antarctica. He was appointed commander of an expedition to protect the coast of Russian America from smugglers, with which he successfully coped. Subsequently, he commanded the Black Sea Fleet, participated in which he received several awards. So, the great discoverers from Russia also make your outstanding contribution to the development of geography.
